Culture

Children whose fathers make time to play with them from a very young age may find it easier to control their behaviour and emotions as they grow up, research suggests.

The study, by academics at the Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge and the LEGO Foundation, pulled together fragmentary evidence from the past 40 years to understand more about how fathers play with their children when they are very young (ages 0 to 3). The researchers wanted to find out whether father-child play differs from the way children play with their mothers, and its impact on children's development.

Although there are many similarities between fathers and mothers overall, the findings suggest that fathers engage in more physical play even with the youngest children, opting for activities such as tickling, chasing, and piggy-back rides.

This seems to help children learn to control their feelings. It may also make them better at regulating their own behaviour later on, as they enter settings where those skills are important - especially school.

Paul Ramchandani, Professor of Play in Education, Development and Learning at the University of Cambridge, said: "It's important not to overstate the impact of father-child play as there are limits to what the research can tell us, but it does seem that children who get a reasonable amount of playtime with their father benefit as a group."

Dr Ciara Laverty, from the LEGO Foundation, said: "At a policy level, this suggests we need structures that give fathers, as well as mothers, time and space to play with their children during those critical early years. Even today, it's not unusual for fathers who take their child to a parent-toddler group, for example, to find that they are the only father there. A culture shift is beginning to happen, but it needs to happen more."

Parent-child play in the first years of life is known to support essential social, cognitive and communication skills, but most research focuses on mothers and infants. Studies which investigate father-child play are often small, or do so incidentally. "Our research pulled together everything we could find on the subject, to see if we could draw any lessons," Ramchandani said.

The Cambridge review used data from 78 studies, undertaken between 1977 and 2017 - most of them in Europe or North America. The researchers analysed the combined information for patterns about how often fathers and children play together, the nature of that play, and any possible links with children's development.

On average, they found that most fathers play with their child every day. Even with the smallest children, however, father-child play tends to be more physical. With babies, that may simply mean picking them up or helping them to gently raise their limbs and exert their strength; with toddlers, fathers typically opt for boisterous, rough-and-tumble play, like chasing games.

In almost all the studies surveyed, there was a consistent correlation between father-child play and children's subsequent ability to control their feelings. Children who enjoyed high-quality playtime with their fathers were less likely to exhibit hyperactivity, or emotional and behavioural problems. They also appeared to be better at controlling their aggression, and less prone to lash out at other children during disagreements at school.

The reason for this may be that the physical play fathers prefer is particularly well-suited for developing these skills.

"Physical play creates fun, exciting situations in which children have to apply self-regulation," Ramchandani said. "You might have to control your strength, learn when things have gone too far - or maybe your father steps on your toe by accident and you feel cross!"

"It's a safe environment in which children can practise how to respond. If they react the wrong way, they might get told off, but it's not the end of the world - and next time they might remember to behave differently."

The study also found some evidence that father-child play gradually increases through early childhood, then decreases during 'middle childhood' (ages 6 to 12). This, again, may be because physical play is particularly important for helping younger children to negotiate the challenges they encounter when they start to explore the world beyond their own home, in particular at school.

Despite the benefits of father-child play, the authors stress that children who only live with their mother need not be at a disadvantage.

"One of the things that our research points to time and again is the need to vary the types of play children have access to, and mothers can, of course, support physical play with young children as well," Ramchandani added. "Different parents may have slightly different inclinations when it comes to playing with children, but part of being a parent is stepping outside your comfort zone. Children are likely to benefit most if they are given different ways to play and interact."

Gold mining significantly limits the regrowth of Amazon forests, greatly reducing their ability to accumulate carbon, according to a new study. The researchers warn that the impacts of mining on tropical forests are long-lasting and that active land management and restoration will be necessary to recover tropical forests on previously mined lands.

Gold mining has rapidly increased across the Amazon in recent years, especially along the Guiana Shield, where it is responsible for as much as 90% of total deforestation. The Shield encompasses Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Venezuela and small parts of Colombia and northern Brazil, and its forests hold roughly twenty billion tonnes of aboveground carbon in its trees.

The ability of tropical forests to recover from gold mining activities has remained largely unquantified. Now, an international study led by the University of Leeds is the first to provide detailed field-based information on the regeneration of forests in Guyana after gold mining, and the first ground-based estimate of carbon sink lost as a result of gold mining activities across the Amazon.

The team's findings, published in the Journal of Applied Ecology, found that forest recovery rates on abandoned mining pits and tailing ponds are amongst the lowest ever recorded for tropical forests. At some sites there was nearly no tree regeneration even after three to four years since mining had stopped.

They estimate that mining-related deforestation results in the annual loss of over two million tons of forest carbon across the Amazon. The lack of forest regrowth observed following mining suggests that this lost carbon cannot be recovered through natural regeneration.

Lead author Dr Michelle Kalamandeen, began this research as a postgraduate researcher in the School of Geography at Leeds she is now a postdoctoral researcher at Cambridge University. She said: "This study shows that tropical forests are strongly impacted by mining activities, and have very little capacity to re-establish themselves following mining.

"Our results clearly show the extraction process has stripped nitrogen from the soil, a critical component to forest recovery, and in many cases directly contributed to the presence of mercury within neighbouring forests and rivers. Active mining sites had on average 250 times more mercury concentrations than abandoned sites.

"Not only does this have serious consequences for our battle against global warming by limiting Amazonian forests' ability to capture and store carbon, but there is also a larger implication of contaminating food sources especially for indigenous and local communities who rely on rivers.

"A positive finding from this study shows that overburden sites, areas where topsoil is deposited during the mining process, recorded similar recovery rates as other Central and South American secondary tropical forests abandoned after agriculture or pasture.

"Active management and enforcement of laws is clearly needed to ensure recovery and to safeguard communities and there are methods available, such as replacing the soil using the overburdens at abandoned sites. But there is an urgent need for large-scale recovery management to be tested and implemented.

"We could be facing a race against the clock. The current crisis is significantly increasing the demand for gold, given its perceived role as an economic stabiliser. With current gold price more than US$1700 per ounce and estimated to reach US$2000-3000 in the coming months, many artisanal and small-scale miners are already rapidly responding to this increase in pricing, and the weakening of environmental laws and policies as we've seen in Brazil, leading to further deforestation in the Amazon."

The team used forest inventory plots installed on recently abandoned mines in two major mining regions in Guyana, and re-censused the sites 18 months later. The study analysed soil samples and determined individual trees' above-ground biomass - the tree's living plant material - to determine recovery and chemical changes caused by mining.

Their results suggest that forest recovery is more strongly limited by severe mining-induced depletion of soil nutrients, especially nitrogen, rather than by mercury contamination. The high rate of mercury does however have serious implications for negative impacts on food security, water supply and local biodiversity.

Study co-author, Dr David Galbraith, Associate Professor in Earth System Dynamics at Leeds, said: "Currently approximately 1.3 million square kilometres of the Amazon is under prospecting for mining activities.

"This research provides support to local and national governance structures to critically approach policy implementation and development for land management, including how and where mining occurs, and more stringent monitoring and action for forest recovery. It shows that carefully planned active restoration projects will be critical in this regard.

"But responsibility lies beyond remediation efforts to mitigate the damage done. Investors and consumers alike need increased awareness and accountability of the environmental footprints of gold mining."

The Guyana Geology and Mines Commission (GGMC) who supported the fieldwork are optimistic that the results from this research will help in making more informed decisions for their reclamation policies and programmes, monitoring and enforcement.

Mr Newell Dennison, Commissioner of the GGMC said: "The research results showed two important aspects: that overburden areas recovered relatively well and there was limited recovery in mining pits and tailing ponds. The latter being areas where we need improved management. The more data we can accumulate for recovery of secondary forests in mined out areas, the better we are all positioned for the implementation of effective programmes and operations that aid in the recovery of our rainforests. We look forward to working with Dr Kalamandeen and her team in the future."

The Guyana Forestry Commission (GFC) expressed gratitude and appreciation to the research team for the important and impressive empirical work done in [this] paper.

Mr Gavin Agard, Commissioner of the GFC said: "We expect that this scientific work has greatly improved Guyana's baseline and understanding of the forest degradation impacts of mining with respect to biomass recovery and sets a foundation for more dynamic, focused studies to advise planning and policy for improving secondary forest growth and restoring biomass capacity.

"The findings and recommendations from this study will significantly impact policy and management strategies for forest restoration and rehabilitation in mined-out areas, which is a key objective for Guyana under the Paris Agreement of the UNFCCC.

"The contribution of deforestation and degradation to climate change cannot be ignored, and thus we welcome the contributions of this research team to build and improve our communal knowledge and understanding of our changing forests as we continue to pursue the highest standards of sustainable forestry in Guyana."

VANCOUVER, Wash. - Fears of confirming stereotypes about pregnant workers as incompetent, weak or less committed to their job can drive pregnant employees to work extra hard, risking injury.

A recent Washington State University study of pregnant women in physically demanding jobs showed that the majority, about 63%, felt this type of "stereotype threat," the fear of confirming negative assumptions about a group to which they belong. The study, published in the journal Work & Stress, found this threat led many women to conceal their pregnancy and overperform, even taking actions that placed their health and pregnancy at risk, such as standing for long periods or lifting heavy objects.

The study shows the need to acknowledge that these stereotypes exist and help mitigate their impacts, said Lindsey Lavaysse, lead author on the paper and recent WSU Ph.D. graduate.

"The pregnancy stereotype is a silent stressor. It is not always visible, but it really impacts women in the workplace," said Lavaysse. "Most organizations have policies for pregnancy accommodation in place, and it's a legal right, but if the organization's culture suggests there will be retaliation or that workers will be looked upon differently, then women will shy away from using accommodations that are better for their health and their safety."

Lavaysse and co-author Tahira Probst, a WSU professor of psychology, surveyed pregnant employees at three separate points in time over a two-month period, starting with a group of about 400. The subjects were at different stages in their pregnancy and worked in a variety of industries, including manufacturing, health care and retail.

The researchers looked at workplace accidents of women who reported feeling a low versus high stereotype threat. The individuals who reported a higher stereotype threat had nearly three times as many work-related accidents at the end of the two-month period compared to those who felt a relatively low stereotype threat.

Moreover, fears of confirming these stereotypes also increased over the two-month period.

"Two months is a relatively small window of time, but in the scheme of a pregnancy that's close to one whole trimester," said Lavaysse. "As they're progressing through their pregnancy, their experience of stereotype threat, a significant stressor, is also increasing."

The researchers note some limitations to the study, namely that the participants were self-selected, and many dropped out before the two months were over. However, this is the first study to establish a connection between pregnancy stereotype threat and workplace accidents.

The authors recommend further research that investigates possible variables that may mitigate some of the negative stigma around pregnancy while working and create better social support for utilizing pregnancy accommodation and maternal leave policies.

It only takes a moment to fall off a ladder, but the psychological impacts are long-lasting, particularly for older males.

In the world's first study of long-term impacts from ladder falls, Queensland researchers have found half of fallers experience a deterioration in their psychological wellbeing for at least six months after the incident.

The University of Queensland's Dr Rob Eley said those who fell experienced sleeping problems, anxiety, depression and pain well after checking out of hospital.

"Ladder falls go far beyond that of the physical injury; they significantly impact a person's mental health and the whole family," Dr Eley said.

"It's frustrating because ladder-related falls are frequently preventable, yet they're a common cause of injuries presented at the emergency department.

"Our study found males over 55 years old are particularly at risk, making up more than half of all our ladder-related fall cases."

The researchers followed 134 Queenslanders who presented to emergency at Princess Alexandra and Nambour General Hospitals between October 2015 and October 2016 as a result of a fall from a ladder.

The team used the Assessment of Quality of Life (AQoL) scale to measure the subjects' physical and psychological recovery over time.

The patients spent an average of five days in hospital with the most common injuries including spinal fractures, rib fractures, tibia or fibula fractures, radius or ulna fractures, pelvic fractures, and traumatic pneumothorax.

The study found that most injuries occurred in non-occupational settings during home maintenance.

Of those who were employed at the time, 80 per cent required at least four weeks off work, and 16 per cent were unable to return or perform their normal function after six months.

Dr Eley said the study highlighted the need for improved safety designs and injury prevention strategies.

"Our research reinforces the need for mandated safety instructions for ladders, as well as safety features like rubber feet, hooks, extender arms, fasteners and stabilisers," Dr Eley said.

"We suggest that at the place of purchase, older men are targeted to reinforce safety instructions, and perhaps are provided with mandatory stabilising features.

"The community also needs to do more to educate people that it's OK to request help or employ home service contractors to complete tasks around the home that require a ladder.

"Ladder falls are frequently preventable and our findings demonstrate the need for preventative measures to be taken."

Prof. TIAN Chao's group from the Department of Precision Machinery and Instrumentation, University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) has made progress on the photoacoustic imaging for medical science. They improved the imaging quality and 3D construction of the photoacoustic imaging, and applied them to in vivo sentinel lymph node imaging. The studies were published in IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, Physical Review Applied and Journal of Biophotonics.

Sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLN) is currently the standard method for breast cancer staging, which includes preoperative lymph node tracing and intraoperative lymph node biopsy image-guiding. However, existing image guidance techniques suffer from a variety of limitations, such as harmful ionizing radiation, high cost, and poor imaging depth.

To solve these problems, Prof. TIAN's group proposed a contract-agent-enhanced photoacoustic imaging method, which used clinically-approved carbon nanoparticles as a contrast agent to trace SLN and guide fine needle aspiration biopsies, non-invasively and non-radioactively.

The researchers injected carbon nanoparticles (CNPs) into the forepaws of living rats to stain SLN. Subsequently, photoacoustic and ultrasound dual-modality imaging were performed simultaneously in real-time at the axillary area of the rats to trace the SLN and guide the biopsy.

Experiments showed that photoacoustics can image and display lymphatic vessel, lymph nodes, needles, etc. with high resolution and high signal-to-noise ratio, which can provide high-quality image guidance for lymph node biopsy.

In addition, spectroscopic analysis showed that CNPs are superior to indocyanine green, methylene blue and other contrast agents in optical absorption coefficient, photobleaching and photoacoustic conversion efficiency. It is an excellent tracer for identifying SLN by photoacoustic imaging and image-guided biopsies.

This study provides a practical approach for fine-needle aspiration biopsy in the SLN tracing and image guidance, and paves the way for clinical translation of photoacoustic SLN imaging.

Prediction of storm surges and peak wave heights using advanced high-resolution modeling reveals the important role of offshore reefs in protecting coastal zones. The findings by KAUST researchers provide valuable design criteria for city planning in the King Abdullah Economic City (KAEC) coastal zone and highlight the economic and disaster-mitigating imperative to conserve the Red Sea's coral reefs.

"The original task was to model the maximum wave heights to set the minimum safe floor elevation for structures and roadway design in the city," says Sabique Langodan from KAUST's Red Sea Modeling and Prediction Group. "Yet with the wealth of wave and water-level observations and accurate bathymetry (water depth) near the coastline, combined with the advanced modeling and supercomputing capabilities available to us at KAUST, we extended the study to investigate the role of coral reefs in modulating the wave climate of this reef-sheltered region."

To accurately predict extreme wave heights it is necessary to model how waves transform as they pass across reefs and the shallow sea floor using long-term wave data. Many inputs go into the simulation, including a model of the physical wave transformation process, bathymetry, atmospheric forcing and sea circulation. Just as important, however, is the simulation architecture and the computational platform because they determine the resolution and accuracy of the results.

"We configured a high-resolution model using an unstructured grid, which allows us to vary the resolution of the model over the domain, from 60 kilometer cells out to sea, to cells as small as 60 meters near the coastline," says Langodan.

The researchers used a coupled wave and circulation model to account for changes in wave heights resulting from variations in water levels and currents. They combined this with meteorological fields derived from a high-resolution regional atmospheric model.

"Our high-resolution study allowed the minimum safe elevation in KAEC to be revised lower, from 4.0 meters to 2.3 meters," says group leader Ibrahim Hoteit. "Although a relatively small drop, this leads to a saving of about 90 million cubic meters of fill material equating to about 500 million USD."

However, the study also showed that the lowered safe elevation depends on the presence of the coral reefs located off the Red Sea coast, which act as a natural breakwater to provide protection to coastal areas against hazards, such as wave runup, overtopping, flooding and erosion.

"The reefs reduce wave heights by half at the coastline," says co-author Omar Knio. "Reef?protected coastlines could still be at risk of larger waves if the coastal protection offered by reefs is reduced by coral degradation or sea level rise."

Neuroscientists and stem cell researchers at Lund University in Sweden have developed a research model that allows studying human hippocampal neurons, the brain cells primarily affected by Alzheimer's disease pathology. The study has been published in Stem Cell Reports.

In Alzheimer's disease the hippocampus, a brain structure that regulates motivation, emotion, learning, and memory, is severely affected. However, due to unavailability of hippocampal tissue, unless post-mortem, it is not possible for researchers to understand what the primordial events that lead to cellular dysfunction, and subsequent neuronal injury, are. Understanding what cellular pathways are altered very early on in Alzheimer's disease, would allow the development of therapies that could slow down the disease.

Researchers in Lund have succeeded to generate 3-D hippocampal tissue-like structures from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC), called hippocampal spheroids (HS). The spheroids are enriched in so-called granule neurons.

In most vertebrate species, including humans, new granule neurons are generated throughout life via a process called neurogenesis and they are believed to contribute to memory formation. The new method developed by the scientists will enable scaling up the production of hippocampal neurons to study human neurogenesis, and, most importantly, examine how human hippocampal cells, including granule neurons and supporting glia, may be affected very early on in Alzheimer's disease and disorders where the hippocampus is injured.

"By using patient iPSC, we can generate young brain cells and examine early pathogenic changes, and gain valuable insight into the development and progression of brain diseases", explains Laurent Roybon, director of the Stem Cell Laboratory for CNS Disease Modeling at Lund University and one of the researchers behind the study.

Understanding patient-specific pathology

The researchers also used HS to examine cellular dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease and more precisely, how cellular pathogenesis differed between individuals. They generated HSs from patients with extreme symptomatology - a typical Alzheimer´s patient carrying a mutation in the amyloid precursor protein gene, and an atypical individual carrying a rare mutation in the presenilin 1 gene - and examined the cellular pathology.

"Interestingly, we found that despite exhibiting some important common features, the HSs from the two mutants differed in many other characteristics, which somewhat was reflecting the severity of their symptoms", explains Yuriy Pomeshchik, lead author of the new study.

Hippocampal spheroids can serve multiple purposes

The work developed in Dr. Roybon´s laboratory opens up new possibilities, as it serves multiple purposes:

"HSs can be used to understand how hippocampal cells generate and mature over time. They can also be used to examine if the neurogenesis is affected in HSs generated from patients with hippocampal injury compared to control individuals. The analysis of HSs can reveal what cellular dysfunctions take place early on in the disease, and if they are identical or differ between patients carrying familial or idiopathic forms. HSs could be harnessed to develop treatments tailored to subgroups of patients as well as to understand why some treatments may or may not be beneficial for them. Ultimately, HSs could allow examining the effectiveness of a putative treatment prior to being administered, in addition to being used as a way to sub-group individuals for clinical trial, and recruit putative responders. We believe that HSs will be an important tool to develop therapies and provide patients with the best treatment possible", says Laurent Roybon.

"We employed HSs to examine the effect of a gene called NeuroD1, which we have been studying extensively for years. Viral-mediated expression of NeuroD1 was sufficient to increase the level of synaptic genes, whose levels are affected in Alzheimer's disease. Improving synaptic transmission will be key to resolving impaired cognition in Alzheimer's disease", says Yuriy Pomeshchik.

"We will pursue our efforts to generate spheroids from patients diagnosed with neurodegenerative diseases, and use them to gain insights into early cellular dysfunction to pinpoint at disease-specific and relevant targets for therapeutic intervention. We will also push, to bring NeuroD1 gene therapy to clinical trial", concludes Laurent Roybon.

Using similar methodology, the researchers also generated midbrain spheroids containing dopaminergic neurons to identify early metabolic dysfunctions in Parkinson's disease cells (Chumarina et al, Acta Neuropathologica Communications, 2019).

Changes to lockdown measures in the UK and around the world in an effort to restart the economy could lead to wide disparity in how the public adheres to social distancing, according to a new report from psychologists at the University of Bath.

In a paper published in the British Journal of Social Psychology, the researchers warn of emerging tensions that will arise between groups who interpret messages about social distancing in different ways and the challenge this poses to policymakers.

They suggest that in March, strict lockdown guidelines supported by legal and policy changes, meant that most people adhered to the same mitigating practices including isolation and distancing.

Now that lockdown is easing in many parts of the world, with policies becoming more ambiguous, many practices now need to be negotiated on an interpersonal level, they argue. This means that ensuring compliance will increasingly rely on informal, social policing between individuals: both for those who do, versus those who do not uphold social distancing.

Over recent weeks in the UK, scenes of packed sunny beaches have filled newspapers, leading some to question the sense of others, labelled 'covidiots'. For the researchers this is a sign of mixed messaging surrounding the relaxation of lockdown with different interpretations by individuals.

They warn that morally blaming individuals for the impact of their behaviour on the pandemic - as evidenced in the recent threat to close beaches - may detract from a much-needed discussion over whether guidelines are fit for purpose and their effect on infection rates.

Equally, they draw attention to moral challenges faced by others who wish to maintain strict distancing or isolation and the challenges they now face under pressure to socialise without wanting to appear rude or overdramatic. The researchers suggest that how individuals continue to differently interpret public health messages about COVID-19 will lead to increased tensions between groups moving further into summer.

Lead researcher Annayah Prosser from the Department of Psychology at the University of Bath explains: "Strict lockdown guidelines meant that until recently everyone was adhering to the same mitigating practices such as isolation and distancing. However, now that lockdown is easing, and policy is becoming more ambiguous, many practices now need to be negotiated on an interpersonal level. For example, at the height of lockdown you didn't need to decline an invitation to a social gathering, because it was technically against the law. Now, if you decline an invitation, you could be perceived as rude, or as a 'do-gooder' who thinks they're better than everyone else."

In their report, the team outline how this person-to-person informal regulation poses difficulties for people who want to continue to maintain strict practices over time, who may increasingly face social derogation and ostracism from others who behave differently.

Annayah Prosser added: "Our main recommendation for individuals is to avoid portraying others as morally 'good' or 'bad' for their actions. People may have complex reasons for their behaviour, that may not be visible on sight or through a short social media post. These choices are tough and simplifying behaviour as 'good' or 'bad' without knowing the full story could lead to increased tensions and polarisation at a time when communities need to work together constructively to address the crisis."

Ordered and variable animal behaviours emerge to explore and adapt to the environment. They are generally considered as the combination of a series of stereotyped motor primitives. However, how the nervous system shapes the dynamics of motor sequences remains to be solved.

In a study published in eLife, Prof. WEN Quan from School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) has proposed the algorithms and circuit mechanisms for the robust and flexible motor states of nematodes during escape responses.

Prof. WEN's group investigated nematode Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) on the neural circuit mechanisms of how robust and flexible the motor sequences are generated.

C. elegans are ideal subjects for their simple yet fully functional neural system with only 302 neurons, approximately 6400 chemical synapses and 890 electrical synapses. Early in the 1980s, the coupling image of neural networks were reconstituted at the synapse scale by the electron microscope, laying a solid foundation for the research on the neural circuit. Besides, optical manipulation and detection are easily conducted considering C. elegans' overall transparent bodies.

Potential threats like mechanical or thermal stimuli robustly trigger escape responses comprised of stereotyped motor modules including forward movement, backward movement and turning movement. However, the sequence and timing of actions of every module vary from each other.

With the help of optogenetic technology, calcium image and computational models, the researchers discovered that the excitatory feedforward coupling accounts for certain motor sequences robustly triggered by stimuli, while a winner-take-all operation via mutual inhibition between motor modules realizes the flexible alteration of different motor patterns. Also, the plasticity of short-term synapses and the intrinsic noise of the nervous system play an important role in the sequence and timing of motor patterns.

Applying the coupling image of neural networks of C. elegans and molecular biological methods, the researchers further proved that electrical synapses contribute to feedforward coupling, whereas glutamatergic synapses contribute to inhibition between modules through glutamate-gated chloride expressed by downstream neurons.

The study opens more possibilities to understand the mechanisms of motor manipulation of advanced organisms, and sheds new light on the design of the next generation of brain-inspired intelligence.

Staring at a deep red light for three minutes a day can significantly improve declining eyesight, finds a new UCL-led study, the first of its kind in humans.

Scientists believe the discovery, published in the Journals of Gerontology, could signal the dawn of new affordable home-based eye therapies, helping the millions of people globally with naturally declining vision.

In the UK there are currently around 12 million people aged over 65: in 50 years this will increase to around 20 million and all will have some degree of visual decline because of retinal ageing.

Lead author, Professor Glen Jeffery (UCL Institute of Ophthalmology) said: "As you age your visual system declines significantly, particularly once over 40.

"Your retinal sensitivity and your colour vision are both gradually undermined, and with an ageing population, this is an increasingly important issue.

"To try to stem or reverse this decline, we sought to reboot the retina's ageing cells with short bursts of longwave light."

In humans around 40 years-old, cells in the eye's retina begin to age, and the pace of this ageing is caused, in part, when the cell's mitochondria, whose role is to produce energy (known as ATP) and boost cell function, also start to decline.

Mitochondrial density is greatest in the retina's photoreceptor cells, which have high energy demands. As a result, the retina ages faster than other organs, with a 70% ATP reduction over life, causing a significant decline in photoreceptor function as they lack the energy to perform their normal role.

Researchers built on their previous findings in mice, bumblebees and fruit flies, which all found significant improvements in the function of the retina's photoreceptors when their eyes were exposed to 670 nanometre (long wavelength) deep red light.

"Mitochondria have specific light absorbance characteristics influencing their performance: longer wavelengths spanning 650 to 1000nm are absorbed and improve mitochondrial performance to increase energy production," said Professor Jeffery.

The retina's photoreceptor population is formed of cones, which mediate colour vision and rods, which provide peripheral vision and adapt vision in low/dim light.

For the study, 24 people (12 male, 12 female), aged between 28 and 72, who had no ocular disease, were recruited. All participants' eyes were tested for the sensitivity of their rods and cones at the start of the study. Rod sensitivity was measured in dark adapted eyes (with pupils dilated) by asking participants to detect dim light signals in the dark, and cone function was tested by subjects identifying coloured letters that had very low contrast and appeared increasingly blurred, a process called colour contrast.

All participants were then given a small LED torch to take home and were asked to look into* its deep red 670nm light beam for three minutes a day for two weeks. They were then re-tested for their rod and cone sensitivity

Results

Researchers found the 670nm light had no impact in younger individuals, but in those around 40 years and over, significant improvements were obtained.

Cone colour contrast sensitivity (the ability to detect colours) improved by up to 20% in some people aged around 40 and over. Improvements were more significant in the blue part of the colour spectrum that is more vulnerable in ageing.

Rod sensitivity (the ability to see in low light) also improved significantly in those aged around 40 and over, though less than colour contrast.

Professor Jeffery said: "Our study shows that it is possible to significantly improve vision that has declined in aged individuals using simple brief exposures to light wavelengths that recharge the energy system that has declined in the retina cells, rather like re-charging a battery.

"The technology is simple and very safe, using a deep red light of a specific wavelength, that is absorbed by mitochondria in the retina that supply energy for cellular function.

"Our devices cost about £12 to make, so the technology is highly accessible to members of the public."

In a system with self-replicating molecules -previously shown to have the capability to grow, divide and evolve - chemists from the University of Groningen have now discovered catalytic capabilities that result in a basic metabolism. Furthermore, they linked a light-sensitive dye to the molecules, which enabled them to use light energy to power growth. These findings, which bring artificial life one step closer, were published simultaneously in the journals Nature Chemistry and Nature Catalysis on 26 June.

Ten years ago, Sijbren Otto, Professor of Systems Chemistry at the University of Groningen's Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, discovered a new mechanism for self-replication: small peptide-containing molecules in solution form rings that subsequently form growing stacks. When a stack breaks, both halves start to grow again. Furthermore, the growth of stacks depletes the number of rings in solution and this, in turn, stimulates the formation of new rings from the building blocks. The system could also 'mutate' when different building blocks were added.

Stunning discovery

This system, which arose spontaneously, is a form of artificial proto-life. 'The definition of life is complex but in general, life should have three basic properties,' explains Otto. 'The first is replication, and this happens in our system. The second is metabolism, which should create building blocks from materials in the environment. And the third is compartmentalization, which separates the living organism from its surroundings.' Finally, such organisms should develop a fourth, more advanced property, which is the ability to evolve and invent.

Otto and his team set out to make changes to their molecules in order to add catalytic capabilities. 'However, when we started the project, we made a stunning discovery. Without requiring any changes, the system already showed catalysis; we just hadn't noticed this before.' The stacks grow from rings made up of six building blocks. These rings are formed by combining the building blocks of smaller rings that are made up of three or four building blocks.

Evolution

'It turned out that the stacks of rings catalyse the formation of the smaller rings,' says Otto. Further analysis showed that catalysis of this reaction requires the presence of two specific amino acid residues (two lysine residues). 'Neither the building blocks nor the separate rings have catalytic abilities but the stacks do. So, we assume that in these stacks, a 3D configuration of these lysine residues arises that acts as the catalytic centre, just like proteins shape active sites by placing amino acid residues in highly specific arrangements,' explains Otto. Thus, in the structures that emerge as a result of their ability to self-replicate, amino acids become organized in such a way that they can act as catalysts.

The stacks are also capable of retro-aldol catalysis, a well-known reaction that is often used to benchmark catalyst design efforts. 'Interestingly, our stacks, which were not designed to have catalytic capabilities, were as efficient as the best-designed catalysts we know.' Finding out that the same stacks can catalyse two very different reactions is interesting. Many enzymes have this ability, which gives evolution a chance to develop something new.

Metabolism

In a second study, a photosensitive dye was added. 'Guille Monreal, one of my PhD students, read that such a dye could stimulate the formation of reactive singlet oxygen in amyloid peptides. As reactive oxygen drives important steps in ring formation, he wanted to see if this would speed up the formation of rings.' Two different dyes were found that indeed speed up ring formation when exposed to light, but only when they were bound to the stacks. 'The dyes appeared to act as cofactors for the stacks, just like modern-day proteins use cofactors for their catalysis,' says Otto. When bound to the replicating fibres, the dye can use energy from light to create reactive singlet oxygen and thereby increase the formation of new rings.

Both the spontaneous catalysis by the stacks and the catalysis mediated by the cofactor result in a kind of metabolism that is linked to replication. 'It is not yet the kind of metabolism you see in living organisms,' explains Otto. 'In our system, catalysis merely speeds up reactions that would occur slowly without help. In life, metabolism also drives reactions that would otherwise not occur.'

Artificial life

However, Otto's artificial system shows both replication and a primitive form of metabolism. 'Furthermore, from this point, compartmentalization is a relatively small step.' So, is he close to seeing artificial life evolve in his test tubes? 'Not quite,' admits Otto. 'That would require the system to be capable of open-ended evolution, which means it can evolve capabilities that are not present in the system. And we have as yet no clear idea how to accomplish that. But our system appears to be a sound basis from which we may get there.'

Simple Science Summary

Ten years ago, Sijbren Otto, Professor of Chemistry at the University of Groningen, discovered self-replicating molecules that spontaneously formed rings, which then organized into stacks. These growing stacks were able to divide by breaking in half after which each half continues to grow. This system looks like a primitive form of life. Otto and scientists from his research team now discovered that the stacks act as catalysts, which speed up the formation of new rings from simple building blocks. Furthermore, when a light-sensitive dye is added and binds to the stacks, it will use the energy from light to produce reactive oxygen, which also speeds up the formation of new rings. Both reactions are a simple kind of metabolism. This means that these molecules do not just grow and multiply, they can also stimulate the production of their own building blocks. This brings them one step closer to a man-made system that would qualify as 'artificial life'.

WASHINGTON, DC (June 26, 2020) - When work requirements for a federal food safety-net program start again, many low-income Americans will lose benefits - and Black adults will be hardest hit, according to a study published today. In addition, some disabled people will lose these crucial food assistance benefits.

The authors point out that the loss of food assistance would damage the health of low-income people, who suffer from high rates of COVID-19 and other serious health conditions.

"The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in record rates of unemployment. SNAP benefits are critical to help people who have lost work get the food they need," said lead author Erin Brantley, PhD, MPH, a senior research associate at the George Washington University Milken Institute School of Public Health (Milken Institute SPH). "When work requirements for SNAP start again, history shows we can expect to see a disproportionate impact on black families."

Work requirements for Supplemental Nutritional Assistance Program (SNAP), formerly called the food stamp program, are temporarily paused under the Families First Coronavirus Response Act but are set to resume when the federal public health emergency ends. Separate from this action, the Trump administration issued a new rule to limit the ability that states traditionally have had to waive SNAP work requirements when unemployment is high, although a federal court has temporarily stopped implementation.

The study is the first to find that SNAP work requirements lead more Black adults to lose food assistance compared to white adults. It is also the first published research to show that SNAP work requirements cause disabled adults to lose benefits. Although SNAP work requirements exempt some people with disabilities, others may not qualify for an exemption, despite facing substantial health challenges. In some cases, disabled people may lose SNAP benefits because they cannot navigate the paperwork requirements, the authors point out.

Brantley and her colleagues at the Milken Institute SPH analyzed the impact of the requirement that low-income Americans prove that they are working - or lose SNAP benefits. The study examined what happened when many states put work requirements for SNAP into place between 2013 and 2017. The researchers found that:

Food stamp work requirements for adults aged 18 to 49 led to a 21 percent drop in participation in the program overall;

Black adults experienced a 23 percent loss in food assistance during that time, much larger than the 16 percent decline for white adults, likely because black workers have fewer work prospects;

Even though the law exempts some with disabilities, there was a significant 7.8 percent drop in participation for these Americans.

The authors point out that although work requirements are paused during the public health emergency, the economic fall-out, high rates of unemployment and food insecurity could last long after the crisis is declared over.

"Our study suggests that even when the economy was strong such work requirements created disparities that harmed low-income people, especially in Black communities and people with disabilities," said Leighton Ku, director of the Center for Health Policy Research at Milken Institute SPH and co-author of the study. "The harm will be far worse when jobs are scarce during and after the COVID-19 pandemic, since high unemployment is expected to persist."

The findings also have implications for health insurance coverage. The Trump administration has encouraged states to introduce work requirements to Medicaid. Although federal courts have blocked implementation of Medicaid work requirements in some states, several states have continued to develop plans for new policies.

SNAP provides an estimated 37 million Americans with electronic vouchers to help pay for groceries. Low-income people who receive SNAP benefits have improved food security and that leads to better health, Ku and Brantley say.

What The Study Did: This study examined the worldwide trends of thyroid cancer from 1990 to 2017 according to geographic location, sex, age and socioeconomic factors.

Authors: Jun Lyu, Ph.D., of the First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University in Guangzhou, China, and ZhiJun Dai, Ph.D., of Zhejiang University in Hangzhou, China, are the corresponding authors.

To access the embargoed study: Visit our For The Media website at this link https://media.jamanetwork.com/

(doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.8759)

Editor's Note: Please see the article for additional information, including other authors, author contributions and affiliations, conflicts of interest and financial disclosures, and funding and support.

What The Study Did: The clinical characteristics and outcomes in patients with multiple sclerosis who contract COVID-19 are described in this observational study, which identifies factors associated with COVID-19 severity.

Authors: Celine Louapre, M.D., of the Sorbonne Universite in Paris, is the corresponding author.

To access the embargoed study: Visit our For The Media website at this link https://media.jamanetwork.com/

(doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2020.2581)

Editor's Note: The article includes conflicts of interest and funding/support disclosures. Please see the article for additional information, including other authors, author contributions and affiliations, conflicts of interest and financial disclosures, and funding and support.

Indium nitride is a promising material for use in electronics, but difficult to manufacture. Scientists at Linköping University, Sweden, have developed a new molecule that can be used to create high-quality indium nitride, making it possible to use it in, for example, high-frequency electronics. The results have been published in Chemistry of Materials.

The bandwidth we currently use for wireless data transfer will soon be full. If we are to continue transmitting ever-increasing amounts of data, the available bandwidth must be increased by bringing further frequencies into use. Indium nitride may be part of the solution.

"Since electrons move through indium nitride extremely easily, it is possible to send electrons backwards and forwards through the material at very high speeds, and create signals with extremely high frequencies. This means that indium nitride can be used in high-frequency electronics, where it can provide, for example, new frequencies for wireless data transfer", says Henrik Pedersen, professor of inorganic chemistry at the Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology at Linköping University. He has led the study, which was recently published in Chemistry of Materials.

Indium nitride consists of nitrogen and a metal, indium. It is a semiconductor and can therefore be used in transistors, on which all electronic devices are based. The problem is that it is difficult to produce thin films of indium nitride. Thin films of similar semiconductor materials are often produced using a well-established method known as chemical vapour deposition, or CVD, in which temperatures between 800 and 1,000 degrees Celsius are used. However, indium nitride breaks down into its constituents, indium and nitrogen, when it is heated above 600 degrees Celsius.

The scientists who conducted the present study have used a variant of CVD known as atomic layer deposition, or ALD, in which lower temperatures are used. They have developed a new molecule, known as an indium triazenide. No one had worked with such indium triazenides previously, and the LiU researchers soon discovered that the triazenide molecule is an excellent starting material for the manufacture of thin films. Most materials used in electronics must be produced by allowing a thin film to grow on a surface that controls the crystal structure of the electronic material. The process is known as epitaxial growth. The researchers discovered that it is possible to achieve epitaxial growth of indium nitride if silicon carbide is used as substrate, something that was not previously known. Furthermore, the indium nitride produced in this way is extremely pure, and among the highest quality indium nitride in the world.

"The molecule that we have produced, an indium triazenide, makes it possible to use indium nitride in electronic devices. We have shown that it is possible to produce indium nitride in a manner that ensures that it is sufficiently pure to be described as a true electronic material", says Henrik Pedersen.

The researchers discovered another surprising fact. It is generally accepted among those who use ALD that the molecules should not be allowed to react or be broken down in any way in the gas phase. But when the researchers changed the temperature of the coating process, they discovered that there is not just one, but two, temperatures at which the process was stable.

"The indium triazenide breaks down into smaller fragments in the gas phase, and this improves the ALD process. This is a paradigm shift within ALD - using molecules that are not fully stable in the gas phase. We show that we can obtain a better final result if we allow the new molecule to break down to a certain extent in the gas phase", says Henrik Pedersen.

The researchers are now examining similar triazenide molecules with other metals than indium, and have obtained promising results when using these to produce molecules for ALD.