Earth

Japanese scientists report in Pattern Recognition a new method to construct 3D models from 2D images. The approach, which involves non-rigid registration with a blending of rigid transforms, overcomes several of the limitations in current methods. The researchers validate their method by applying it to the Kyoto Collection of Human Embryos and Fetuses, the largest collection of human embryos in the world, with over 45,000 specimens.

MRI and CT scans are standard techniques for acquiring 3D images of the body. These modalities can trace with unprecedented precision the location of an injury or stroke. They can even reveal the microscopic protein deposits seen in brain pathologies like Alzheimer's disease. However, for the best resolution, scientists still depend on slices of the specimen, which is why cancer and other biopsies are taken. Once the information desired is acquired, scientists use algorithms that can put together the 2D slices to recreate a simulated 3D image. In this way, they can reconstruct an entire organ or even organism.

Stacking slices together to create a 3D image is akin to putting a cake together after it has been cut. Yes, the general shape is there, but the knife will cause certain slices to break so that the reconstructed cake never looks as beautiful as the original. While this might not upset the party of five-year olds who want to indulge, the party of surgeons looking for the precise location of a tumor are harder to appease.

In fact, the specimen can undergo a series of changes when prepared for sectioning.

"The sectioning process stretches, bends and tears the tissue. The staining process varies between samples. And the fixation process causes tissue destruction," explains Nara Institute of Science and Technology (NAIST), Nara, Japan, Associate Professor Takuya Funatomi, who led the project.

Fundamentally, there are three challenges that emerge with the 3D reconstruction. First is non-rigid deformation, in which the position and orientation of various points in the original specimen have changed. Second is tissue discontinuity, where gaps may appear in the reconstruction if the registration fails. Finally, there is a scale change, where portions of the reconstruction are disproportional to their real size due to non-rigid registration.

For each of these problems, Funatomi and his research team proposed a solution that when combined resulted in a reconstruction that minimizes all three factors using less computational cost than standard methods.

"First, we represent non-rigid deformation using a small number of control points by blending rigid transforms," says Funatomi. The small number of control points can be estimated robustly against the staining variation.

"Then we select the target images according to the non-rigid registration results and apply scale adjustment," he continues.

The new method mainly focuses on a number of serial section images of human embryos from the Kyoto Collection of Human Embryos and Fetuses and could reconstruct 3D embryos with extraordinary success.

Notably, there are no MRI or CT scans of the samples, meaning no 3D models could be used as a reference for the 3D reconstruction. Further, wide variability in tissue damage and staining complicated the reconstruction.

"Our method could describe complex deformation with a smaller number of control points and was robust to a variation of staining," says Funatomi.

A new study by researchers at the University of Eastern Finland is the first to observe that dietary intake of phosphatidylcholine is associated with a reduced risk of dementia. Phosphatidylcholine was also linked to enhanced cognitive performance. The main dietary sources of phosphatidylcholine were eggs and meat. The findings were published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.

Choline is an essential nutrient, usually occurring in food in various compounds. Choline is also necessary for the formation of acetylcholine, which is a neurotransmitter. Earlier studies have linked choline intake with cognitive processing, and adequate choline intake may play a role in the prevention of cognitive decline and Alzheimer's disease. In fact, choline is nowadays used in a multinutrient medical drink intended for the treatment of early Alzheimer's.

The new study now shows that the risk of dementia was 28% lower in men with the highest intake of dietary phosphatidylcholine, when compared to men with the lowest intake. Men with the highest intake of dietary phosphatidylcholine also excelled in tests measuring their memory and linguistic abilities. These findings are significant, considering that more than 50 million people worldwide are suffering from a memory disorder that has led to dementia, and the number is expected to grow as the population ages. Alzheimer's disease is the most common cause of dementia, for which no cure currently exists. The new findings may, therefore, play a vital role in the prevention of dementia. Successful dementia prevention is a sum of many things and in this equation, even small individual factors can have a positive effect on the overall risk, possibly by preventing or delaying the disease onset.

"However, this is just one observational study, and we need further research before any definitive conclusions can be drawn," Maija Ylilauri, a PhD Student at the University of Eastern Finland points out.

The data for the study were derived from the Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor Study, KIHD. At the onset of the study in 1984-1989, researchers analysed approximately 2,500 Finnish men aged between 42 and 60 for their dietary and lifestyle habits, and health in general. These data were combined with their hospital records, cause of death records and medication reimbursement records after an average follow-up period of 22 years. In addition, four years after the study onset, approximately 500 men completed tests measuring their memory and cognitive processing. During the follow-up, 337 men developed dementia.

The analyses extensively accounted for other lifestyle and nutrition related factors that could have explained the observed associations. In addition, the APOE4 gene, which predisposes to Alzheimer's disease and is common in the Finnish population, was accounted for, showing no significant impact on the findings. The key sources of phosphatidylcholine in the study population's diet were eggs (39%) and meat (37%).

A new study by researchers at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health examined independent charity prescription drug assistance programs in the U.S. and found that nearly all--97 percent--did not provide coverage for uninsured patients.

The researchers also found that these programs were more likely to cover high-cost, brand-name prescription drugs despite the availability of lower-priced generic options.

The findings will be published online August 6 in JAMA.

Patient assistance programs run by independent charities help patients pay for the cost of prescription drugs. Spending by independent charity programs increased almost sixfold between 2007 and 2016. Many of these programs are funded by pharmaceutical companies. Not much is known about how these programs function--what drugs they cover, how patients qualify or the names of funders, including pharmaceutical companies. In recent years, federal investigations into several independent charity patient assistance programs led to multimillion-dollar settlements with pharmaceutical companies for allegedly steering patients to their higher-priced drugs.

"Independent patient assistance programs favor higher-priced drugs, and the higher the drug price, the higher the likelihood of it being covered," says Gerard Anderson, PhD, professor in the Bloomberg School's Department of Health Policy and Management and director of the Center for Hospital Finance and Management, also at the School. "Unfortunately patients with the greatest financial needs--people without health insurance--do not qualify for these programs."

To get a sense of eligibility criteria and drugs covered, the researchers identified the eight largest nonprofit, independent charity organizations using a public-facing database, GuideStar. These organizations allocated more than half of their revenue to help patients cover prescription drug costs.

The study primarily focused on the six largest charity organizations which together offered 274 different disease-specific patient assistance programs in 2018. The type of financial support varied among programs. The most common type of program (168 programs or 61 percent) offered only co-payment assistance. The next most common type of program (90 programs or 33 percent) allowed patients to choose between co-payment assistance or help with paying insurance premiums. None of the programs provided free drugs. As for specific diseases, 113 programs, or 41 percent, covered drugs for cancer or cancer-related conditions, while 93 programs, or 34 percent, covered treatments for genetic or rare diseases.

All 274 patient assistance programs had a combination of the following requirements for patients to participate: health insurance, a prescription for a drug covered by the program and proof of income. Five hundred percent above the federal poverty line was the most common income eligibility limit, making 80 percent of Americans eligible for assistance. Under this requirement, a single person earning less than $60,700 or families earning less than $125,500 would qualify for most programs.

"Only covering insured patients may help these programs cover more patients with their limited funds," says So-Yeon Kang, MPH, MBA, a research assistant in the Bloomberg School's Department of Health Policy and Management and lead author of the study. "But leaving out the uninsured diminishes the charitable aspects of these organizations supported by tax-exempted donations."

The study also examined the drugs covered by the two largest foundations offering prescription assistance programs in the U.S., the Patient Access Network Foundation and the HealthWell Foundation. Both are featured on the Medicare website, and together offered 123 patient assistance programs at the time of the study. Of the 2,828 drugs covered by Medicare Part D, the study found that the programs covered only about 40 percent of the drugs, or 1,156. The programs typically covered the most expensive drugs.

The study found inconsistent disclosure practices among patient assistance organizations. The two largest--the Patient Access Network Foundation and the HealthWell Foundation--were the only organizations in the study that disclosed the names of the drugs they covered and the maximum coverage amount. Program details, including covered drugs and program funders, were not available in most cases. "More transparency could be the first step to help them ensure these programs aligned with their charitable mission," says Kang.

By favoring higher-priced drugs, these programs could ultimately put pressure on costs. "Beneficiaries of patient assistance programs might buy more expensive drugs, but they don't necessarily feel the cost difference directly," says Anderson. "If these patient assistance programs allow the price of the drug to go up and premium costs increase, this ultimately would place a burden on the whole health care system."

Posting on social media, texting, and appearing in photos while high is prevalent among people who use drugs--and many regret these behaviors, according to a study by the Center for Drug Use and HIV/HCV Research (CDUHR) at NYU College of Global Public Health.

The research, published online August 6 in the journal Substance Abuse, points to the potential social harms associated with substance use, which are likely overlooked and go beyond well-established health risks.

The use of social media--particularly among younger generations--is ubiquitous in today's culture. A recent Pew Research report found that, among 18 to 29-year-olds, more than nine in 10 use some form of social media. Meanwhile, the technology that allows people to use social media anywhere is essentially universal: 100 percent of young Americans (ages 18-29) have mobile phones, 94 percent of which are smartphones.

While technology and social media platforms offer benefits, such as enabling people to be more connected, using mobile phones to post on social media or engage in other forms of communication also can cause long-lasting social harm, a risk that may increase when people are under the influence of drugs or alcohol.

"Risky social media posts, including those showing people high on drugs, have the potential to cause embarrassment, stress, and conflict for users and those in their social networks," said CDUHR researcher Joseph Palamar, PhD, MPH, the study's lead author and an associate professor of Population Health at NYU School of Medicine. "It can also have adverse implications for one's career, since the majority of employers now use social media platforms to screen job candidates and may search for evidence of substance use."

In this study, the researchers examined data from 872 adults surveyed while entering electronic dance music (EDM) parties in New York City who reported current or previous drug use. Participants were asked if they were ever high on a drug while they posted on social media, called or texted someone, or were in a photo. Those who had were also asked if they later regretted the behavior.

The researchers estimate that more than a third of EDM attendees (34.3 percent) posted on social media while high, with 21.4 percent regretting it. In addition, more than half (55.9 percent) had texted or called someone while high, with 30.5 percent regretting making a call or sending a text. Nearly half (47.6 percent) had been in a photo while high, with 32.7 percent regretting it.

"At least one in five experienced regret after engaging in these behaviors while high, suggesting that some situations may have resulted in socially harmful or embarrassing scenarios," said Palamar.

Females and young adults (ages 18-24) were at particularly elevated risk for posting on social media while high and were also more likely to text, make calls, and take photos while high. Although young adults are a known high-risk demographic for substance use, females are typically at lower risk than males. However, research shows that females are more likely to use social media. EDM attendees who identified as neither heterosexual, nor gay, nor bisexual were also at a higher risk for social media posting and related behaviors while high. Separately, black participants were at a much lower risk for these activities.

Compared to users of other drugs, current marijuana users were at the highest risk for engaging in these risky behaviors while high, followed by current cocaine users.

"A significant portion of our sample engaged in the use of social media while high and regretted it. While more research is needed, our findings suggest a need for prevention or harm reduction programs to educate high-risk groups not only about the adverse health effects of substance use, but also about the potential negative social outcomes," said study coauthor Austin Le, MSc, a research associate in the NYU Langone Department of Population Health and a dental student at NYU College of Dentistry.

"While prevention programs have largely focused on physical safety--for example, not driving after drinking--such programs can also stress that using a smartphone while high can increase the risk of someone engaging in regretful behavior. Tactics such as using apps to prevent texting while intoxicated or delaying posting on social media until one is no longer experiencing drug effects may help to minimize social harm," added Palamar.

NASA's Aqua satellite passed over the Korea Strait and found the center of Tropical Storm Francisco in the middle of it. The AIRS instrument aboard took the temperature of its cloud tops to estimate storm strength and found strong storms over two countries.

The Korea Strait is a located between South Korea and Japan. It connects the East China Sea, the Yellow Sea and the Sea of Japan in the northwest Pacific Ocean..

NASA's Aqua satellite passed over Francisco on Aug. 6, at 1217 a.m. EDT (0417 UTC). The Atmospheric Infrared Sounder or AIRS instrument aboard NASA's Aqua satellite analyzed Francisco in infrared light and found cloud top temperatures of strongest thunderstorms as cold as or colder than minus 63 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 53 degrees Celsius) were wrapping around the low-level center from west to north to east. Cloud top temperatures that cold indicate strong storms that have the capability to create heavy rain. Those strong storms were affecting southern South Korea and southern Japan. The southern side of the storm appeared to have few storms.

At 11 a.m. EDT (1500 UTC), the center of Tropical Storm Francisco was located near latitude 36.2 degrees north and 129.4 degrees east longitude. Francisco's center is about 33 nautical miles north-northeast of Busan, South Korea. It was moving to the northwest and had maximum sustained winds near 45 knots (52 mph/83 kph).

The Joint Typhoon Warning Center forecasts that Francisco will move north then turn northeast and curve east through the Sea of Japan and cross Hokkiado, the northernmost islands of Japan on Aug. 8.

Part of the medial temporal lobe, the entorhinal cortex seems to play an important role. But how exactly does this part of our brain, located close to the amygdala and hippocampus, contribute to building a memory?

To fathom this angle of memory, the scientists had 26 subjects learn a sequence of events by navigating a route through a virtual city. They had to remember when certain objects appeared along the route and where they were in the city. Participants encountered chests along the route, which they were instructed to open. Each chest contained a different object that was displayed on a black screen when the chest was opened.

After learning, the researchers used an MRI scanner to measure how these events were displayed in the brain by showing the participants images of the objects in random order. "Events that occurred in temporal proximity are represented by similar activation patterns in the entorhinal cortex", explained Jacob Bellmund. "This means that when objects were shown that were temporally close along the route, this part of the brain reacted in a similar way. They were therefore more similar to each other than the activation patterns of events that occured at long intervals." Thus, the activation patterns of the entorhinal cortex reflected a kind of map of the temporal relationships of events.

The spatial relationships of the events, that is, the distance between the objects as the crow flies, could not be observed by the scientists.

A trick was used to study space and time independently: Three teleporters on the route immediately 'beamed' the participants to another part of the city, where participants continued navigating the route. "This manipulation enabled us to vary the temporal and spatial distances between pairs of objects so that the spatial distance could be large, but the temporal distance very small", explained Bellmund.

The participants' recall of events in a later memory test was influenced by how distinct the temporal map of events in the entorhinal cortex was. They were asked to freely remember all the objects encountered along the route in the order in which they came to mind. Participants with an exact temporal map in the entorhinal cortex recalled events one after the other that occured in temporal proximity. They listed the objects in order, as if they were mentally walking the route again.

Taken together, these findings show that the entorhinal cortex maps the time sequence of events and that this temporal map influences how we retrieve memories. These findings suggest that our brain stores our memories of experiences in a temporally organised way.

A team of researchers, led by international conservation charity ZSL (Zoological Society of London), has discovered that sharks are much rarer in habitats nearer large human populations and fish markets. The team also found that the average body size of sharks and other marine predators fell dramatically in these areas, where sharks are caught and killed intensively for their meat and fins.

The study, published today (06.08.2019) in the journal PLOS Biology, shows that the average body size and number of sharks and other marine predators - vital to maintaining healthy ocean ecosystems - fell significantly in proximity to cities with more than 10,000 people and associated fishing fleets.

The minimum distance from people and fishing which had no measurable effect was 1,250 kilometres. This is far further than previous studies have suggested and probably reflects the increased distances fishing boats can now travel. As a result, sharks were only observed at 12% of sites monitored.

Interestingly, researchers also found that sea surface temperature had a strong influence on predators' average body size, with a marked decrease at more than 28°C. While this is consistent with normal biogeographic patterns - it is known that many smaller species live in tropical waters, for example - it could become a problem as global temperatures continue to rise.

Lead author Dr Tom Letessier, of ZSL's Institute of Zoology, said: "Human activity is now the biggest influence on sharks' distribution, overtaking every other ecological factor. Just 13% of the world's oceans can be considered 'wilderness' but sharks and other predators are much more common and significantly larger at distances greater than 1,250 kilometres from people. This suggests that large marine predators are generally unable to thrive near to people and is another clear example of the impact of human overexploitation on our seas."

To collect their data, the team analysed video footage taken at 1,041 sites across the Indian and Pacific Oceans, selected to test the biggest possible range of conditions and habitats. Sites varied in proximity to fish markets and human populations, with some close to cities and others up to 1,500 kilometres away. Sharks - and other free-swimming predators - were studied using cameras attached to cannisters filled with bait. In total the team recorded 23,200 animals representing 109 species. These included 841 individual sharks from 19 different species.

From monitoring the coral reefs that surround the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT) to protecting the last breeding grounds of Critically Endangered angelsharks, ZSL is committed to preserving the oceans' habitats and the wildlife they sustain. Just one year away from the UN's Aichi Biodiversity targets end date, there remain considerable shortcomings in the current placement of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs).

Dr Letessier added: "Our study also found that shallower water habitats, of depths less than 500 metres, were vital for marine predator diversity. We therefore need to identify sites that are both shallow and remote and prioritise them for conservation. However, there are still numerous shallow hotspots in the vicinity of human markets that are not appropriately protected, and this must change. Existing large, no-take MPAs need to be better enforced and extended to focus on the last refuges where these extraordinary animals remain abundant.

"Large marine predators - and sharks in particular - play a unique and irreplaceable role in the ocean ecosystem. They control populations of prey species, keep those populations healthy by removing sick or injured animals, and transport nutrients between loosely connected habitats over vast distances."

The Southwest has always faced periods of drought. Most recently, from late 2011 to 2017, California experienced years of lower-than-normal rainfall.
El Niño is known to influence rain in the Southwest, but it's not a perfect match. New research from the University of Washington and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution explores what conditions in the ocean and in the atmosphere prolong droughts in the Southwestern U.S.

The answer is complex, according to a study published Aug. 6 in the Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, a journal of the American Geophysical Union.

"What causes droughts that last for decades in some parts of the world, and why does that happen? Can we predict it?" said first author Luke Parsons, a UW postdoctoral researcher in atmospheric sciences. "Our study shows that when you have a large El Niño event, and a La Niña event is coming next, that could potentially start a multiyear drought in the Southwestern U.S."

The general rule of thumb had been that El Niño years -- when the sea surface in a region off the coast of Peru is at least 1 degree Celsius warmer than average -- tend to have more rainfall, and La Niña years, when that region is 1 degree Celsius cooler than average, tend to have less rain. But that simple rule of thumb doesn't always hold true.

"People often think that El Niño years are wet in the Southwest, but research over the years shows that's not always the case," Parsons said. "An El Niño sometimes brings rain, or can help cause it, but frequently that's not what makes any given year wet."

The recent 2015 winter was a case in point, and Parsons said that event helped inspire the new study. As 2015 shaped up to be an El Niño year, there was hope that it would end California's drought. But the rain didn't start to arrive until the following year.

The new study uses climate models to explore the relationship between the world's largest ocean and long-term droughts in the Southwestern U.S., which includes California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona and western Colorado and New Mexico.

"When it's dry one year after another, that's hard on people, and it can be hard on ecosystems," Parsons said.

Weather observations for the Southwest date back only about 150 years, and in that time, only 10 to 15 multiyear droughts have occurred. So the authors used climate models that simulate thousands of years of weather, including over 1,200 long-term droughts in the Southwest. The authors defined a drought as multiple years with lower-than-average rainfall. The drought ended when the region had two consecutive wetter-than-normal years.

"A lot of people have looked at what's going on over the ocean during a drought, but we're trying to take a step back, and look at the whole life cycle -- what happens before a drought starts, what maintains a drought, and then what ends it," Parsons said.

Parsons and co-author Sloan Coats at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution separated the system into pre-drought, during-drought and post-drought periods. They found that before a long-term drought starts, there is often an El Niño year. Then the first year of a drought is often colder than normal in that region of the ocean, though it might not be enough to qualify as a La Niña year.

"Where that warm pool of water sits ends up disturbing, or changing, the jet stream, and that shifts where the winter rains come in off the ocean in the Northern Hemisphere winter," Parsons said. "La Niña can kick off a drought, but you don't have to have multiple La Niña events to continue the drought and keep the Southwest dry."

An El Niño that's slightly farther offshore than normal, in the central tropical Pacific, often ends the drought. But the study shows that's not always true: About 1 in 20 drought years could see an El Niño that doesn't deliver rain.

Better understanding of long-term droughts could help managers make decisions like whether to release water from the Colorado River, or whether to save some in anticipation of another low year.

Former Hurricane Flossie was nothing more than a remnant low pressure area early on Tuesday, August 6. Infrared imagery from NASA's Aqua satellite found just a few scattered areas of cold clouds in thunderstorms in the remnants, now northeast of the Hawaiian Islands.

NASA's Aqua satellite uses infrared light to analyze the strength of storms by providing temperature information about the system's clouds. The strongest thunderstorms that reach high into the atmosphere have the coldest cloud top temperatures.

On August 6 at 4:40 a.m. EDT (0840 UTC), the Moderate Imaging Spectroradiometer or MODIS instrument that flies aboard NASA's Aqua satellite gathered infrared data on Flossie.

MODIS found just a few scattered areas of cold clouds in thunderstorms in the remnants, northeast of the Hawaiian Islands. Those thunderstorms had cloud top temperatures as cold as minus 50 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 45.5 Celsius).

The NHC issued the final advisory on Flossie at 11 p.m. EDT on Aug. 5 (0300 UTC on Aug. 6). At that time, center of Post-Tropical Cyclone Flossie was located near latitude 20.8 degrees North and longitude 154.6 degrees West. That's about 85 miles (135 km) north-northeast of Hilo, Hawaii. The post-tropical cyclone is moving toward the west-northwest near 12 mph (19 kph). A gradual turn toward the north-northwest is expected until dissipation on Wednesday.

Maximum sustained winds are near 35 mph (55 kph) with higher gusts.

Flossie is expected to gradually degenerate over the next day or so and dissipate by Wednesday.

NASA's Aqua satellite passed over the Northwestern Pacific Ocean and captured a visible image of strengthening Tropical Storm Lekima.

On Aug. 6, the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer or MODIS instrument aboard NASA's Aqua satellite provided a visible image of Lekima that showed a ring of strong thunderstorms around its center of circulation.

At 5 a.m. EDT (0900 UTC), the center of Lekima was located near latitude 19.1 degrees north and longitude 129.0 degrees east. Lekima was about 449 nautical miles south of Kadena Air Base, Okinawa, Japan. Lekima was moving to the north-northwest and had maximum sustained winds near 50 knots (57 mph/92 kph).

The Joint Typhoon Warning Center expects Lekima to move northwest and strengthen into a typhoon. After 3 days, it will pass over Taiwan and turn northeast just off the east coast of China, where it is expected to dissipate.

A dog in the grocery store; a cat in the cabin of an airplane; a bird in a coffee shop - companion creatures labelled as Emotional Support Animals (ESAs) are showing up more and more in places previously understood to be animal-free. It's part of a growing trend which includes "certifying" animals to provide emotional assistance to a person with a diagnosable mental condition or emotional disorder.

Jeffrey Younggren, a forensic psychologist and clinical professor at The University of New Mexico's Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, recognized the growing trend presents an ethical challenge for therapists asked to certify emotional support animals for their patients. "Emotional Support Animal Assessments: Toward a Standard and Comprehensive Model for Mental Health Professionals" outlines the ethical challenge and offers possible solutions to better serve both people who feel they need ESAs and those who must comply with the animals such as landlords and airlines.

In their third paper on this topic, published by the American Psychological Association, Younggren and his coauthors propose a four-prong standard assessment model for practitioners to follow when asked to provide a patient with an ESA certificate. These guidelines include:

1. Understanding, recognizing and applying the laws regulating ESAs.

2. A thorough valid assessment of the individual requesting an ESA certification.

3. An assessment of the animal in question to ensure it actually performs the valid functions of an ESA.

4. An assessment of the interaction between the animal and the individual to determine whether the animal's presence has a demonstrably beneficial effect on that individual.

"In this model, you have to take the animal into consideration. Somebody has to certify that the animal is able to do what you're asking it to do. And there are avenues by which animals can be evaluated regarding their capacity for these kinds of experiences," Younggren adds.

For example, a patient with an anxiety problem can takes a pill to calm down, and the effects of the drug are measurable and backed by scientific testing and research. But Younggren says there is very little evidence to scientifically support that animals ameliorate a patient's symptoms.

By making such guidelines and practices standard, the hope is that there will be fewer instances like the one recently, which resulted in a flight attendant needing stitches after being bitten by an emotional support animal.

According to Younggren, service animals must be trained to provide a function otherwise inaccessible to their owner. But ESAs are not held to that standard, which is partially what his new research aims to correct.

"Our research has nothing to do with service animals. Seeing eye dogs and therapy dogs are animals that help individuals manage their disabilities in certain situations - but that's not what an ESA is. An ESA is an example of a well-intended idea that has metastasized and developed into a world of nonsense," Younggren said.

Cassandra Boness, University of Missouri Ph.D. candidate and second author on the paper, says the model will better align ESA certifications with professional and legal practices, while also providing guidelines for mental health practitioners.

"One of our biggest goals is to disseminate this information in order to better educate mental health providers, as well as policy writers, about the need for ethical guidelines around ESAs," Boness said.

In addition, Boness said her hope is that this paper will encourage others to pursue research on the impacts of ESAs on patients, so that there is a more scientific pool of data to cite.

"Mental health professionals who lack full awareness of the law will likely fail to recognize that writing such letters constitutes a disability determination that becomes a part of the individual's clinical records," the paper states.

Currently, in order to receive waivers for housing or travel purposes where animals are banned, the law requires patients must have a mental or emotional condition diagnosable by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). If patients are given certifications for an ESA, it means they, and the therapist signing the certification, are declaring the patient to be psychologically disabled with significant impairment in functioning.

"[The guidelines] will require that those individuals who certify these animals must conduct a comprehensive evaluation of the individual to determine that they have a disability under the DSM-5," Younggren concluded. "That disability has to substantially interfere with the patient's ability to function, which is what the ADA requires. And the presence of the animal has to ameliorate the condition, which means you have to see the person with the animal."

Should this proposal influence an industry standard, Younggren says it will become more difficult for people to receive certification, but on the whole safer for society.

Corn starch, an abundant, cheap and biodegradable raw material, is the basis for a novel larvicide developed by researchers at the University of Campinas (UNICAMP) in São Paulo State, Brazil. The material is used in microcapsules for storage and controlled release of active compounds to kill larvae of Aedes aegypti, the mosquito that transmits dengue, zika, yellow fever and chikungunya.

A patent application has been filed via UNICAMP's innovation agency (Inova). The methodology is described in an article published in Industrial Crops and Products.

The research and development was supported by São Paulo Research Foundation - FAPESP. The principal investigator was Ana Silvia Prata, a professor in the university's Food Engineering School (FEA-UNICAMP).

The published paper describes a biodegradable controlled release system using thymol as the microencapsulated larvicide. Thymol, a key ingredient of essential oil derived from thyme (Thymus vulgaris), a plant widely used as a pharmaceutical and therapeutic agent, is also biodegradable and not harmful to humans in the concentration used by the researchers.

"We succeeded in obtaining a particle that behaves exactly like eggs laid by A. aegypti," Prata said. "While the environment is dry, it remains inert and keeps the active agent protected. As soon as it comes into contact with water, it begins to swell up and release the larvicide. After three days, when the eggs hatch and the larval stage begins, the particle starts to release lethal quantities of the active principle into the water."

The researchers set out to develop a system for controlled release of larvicide in backyards, gardens, utensils and other household objects that may contain water, including bottles, potted plants, old tires and rubble, all of which are breeding grounds for A. aegypti.

According to Prata, public health authorities in Brazil tend to focus on treating water tanks and other large reservoirs with larvicide, but epidemiological studies show that small containers account for 50% of mosquito breeding grounds.

"This is a low-cost larvicide, so the government can produce the particles and distribute them to the public for placement around the home where rainwater accumulates. The idea is to supplement educational and awareness campaigns against dengue," she said.

In tests conducted at UNICAMP, the particles remained functional during approximately five rain cycles. After first contact with water, they released only 20% of the thymol. "In one of our tests, we let the material dry and then rehydrated it, after which the particles again released the larvicide normally," Prata said.

She added that thymol, the key active ingredient in thyme essential oil, is an anti-microbial and blocks the proliferation of microorganisms in water containers, preventing rapid spoilage of the particles after they become wet.

Production method

The life cycle of A. aegypti comprises four stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult mosquito. The development stage varies from five to ten days, becoming shorter as temperatures rise. The larval stage takes place in water and is considered strategic as far as combating the proliferation of the mosquito is concerned.

"Based on this information, we thought about how to produce the particle. One of our collaborators, Johan Ubbink [California Polytechnic State University, USA], suggested extrusion. This is the method used to produce breakfast cereals such as cornflakes and savory corn snacks," Prata said.

The method consists of heating wet starch and forcing it through a small hole. The heat and pressure normally make the material expand after exiting the hole.

"We adapted the process by using a lower temperature and slower screw speed to avoid expansion of the material. If it swelled, the particle would dissolve too quickly on contact with water, releasing the active principle all at once," Prata said.

Another challenge for the group was finding the right composition for the raw material. As Prata explained, starch from corn, wheat or any other plant consists mostly of amylose and amylopectin in varying proportions. The quantity of each substance determines properties such as viscosity and structure, influencing the material's integrity when in contact with water.

"We tested formulations with proportions of amylose ranging from 1.8% to 76%, and in each case evaluated leaching [loss of solids by solubilization] and swelling in an aquatic environment," she said.

At the same time as they evaluated these two aspects of the particle to dose the quantity of thyme essential oil released as a function of the water contact time, the researchers also observed the larvicidal activity of the active principle. This test consisted of measuring the "lethal concentration" (LC) required to kill 99% of the larvae, a parameter known as LC99.

"The LC99 of nonencapsulated thyme essential oil is approximately 70 micrograms per milliliter [μg/ml]. When we put the oil into the particle, it fell to 31 μg/ml. In other words, our controlled release system increased its larvicidal action," Prata said.

Even so, the natural compound's LC99 remained far lower than that of synthetic agents such as temephos. The main advantage of using thyme essential oil, according to Prata, is that the mosquito is unlikely to develop resistance to it because of its complex chemical composition, which includes other active molecules besides thymol.

The group also tested the method using paracress (Acmella oleracea) as a larvicide. The result was similar, but the cost was approximately 15 times that of thymol.

"Thyme essential oil is plentiful and commercially available. It corresponds to only 5% of the particle's composition.

The rest is corn starch, which is very cheap. We therefore consider the technique to be easily scalable," Prata said.

The group is currently studying the possibility of using the same particles to encapsulate nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which assist plant growth. Theoretically, the material could reduce the amount of fertilizer needed in agriculture. "We plan to test this theory in a future project," Prata said.

CAMDEN - Poor physical or mental health increases the chance that formerly incarcerated individuals will commit more crimes and return to prison, according to a groundbreaking new Rutgers University-Camden study.

The study - conducted by Nathan Link and Richard Stansfield, assistant professors of criminal justice at Rutgers-Camden, and Jeffrey Ward, an associate professor of criminal justice at Temple University - advances a health-based model of desistance showing how both mental and physical health affect the chances of maintaining employment and positive family relationships, and ultimately recidivism.

According to the researchers, the study, published in Criminology - the field's flagship journal - is the first known study to identify the indirect links between mental and physical health limitations and recidivism and reincarceration.

"We've flipped the script with this study," says Link. "Most researchers studying mental and physical health are showing how incarceration harms mental and physical health. We are seeing how mental and physical health affect one's ability to stop committing crimes and reenter society successfully."

Prior research, explains Link, has determined that certain structural factors keep people on the right course - employment and strong family relationships being chief among them.

"People term these structural factors as 'turning points,'" says Link. "For instance, a job pushes you away from a criminal lifestyle because your goals change. You also might define yourself differently as someone who has a job and supports a family."

In light of these known structural factors, the researchers examined longitudinal data from the Serious and Violent Offender Reentry Initiative (SVORI), a comprehensive data set of former prisoners released in 12 states, to determine how physical and mental health at the time of release impact family conflict, employment, financial hardship, and two measures of recidivism: self-reported crime and reincarceration.

According to Link, they found that, consistent with expectations, physical health limitations decrease the chance of employment. They posit that, if one's physical health has been hampered, an individual is less likely to secure and maintain a job. To compound matters further, individuals reentering society are more likely to wind up working in physically taxing jobs, such as construction, landscaping, or warehouse work.

"For instance, if you have a bad leg, you may have trouble getting to your job, or have a lot of difficulty doing the work that is expected of you," says Link.

In turn, says Link, they found that individuals who have difficulty finding and maintaining employment are more likely to reoffend and be reincarcerated.

"From prior research, we already know that employment is a protective factor from committing crime," explains Link. "We see now how physical health strongly shapes employment prospects and ultimately affects recidivism."

In the same respect, says the Rutgers-Camden researcher, they found that those who report having depressive symptoms were subsequently more likely to report significant family conflict, which, in turn, is shown to be a strong predictor of criminal behavior and recidivism.

"As with physical health, you see a similar dynamic where poor mental health ultimately increases the chances of reoffending and getting reincarcerated through its adverse impact on family conflict," says Link.

From a policy standpoint, says the Rutgers-Camden researcher, the findings show the need to focus efforts on improving physical and mental health among the incarcerated population and avert health-related reentry failures.

"If we don't care about their physical and mental wellbeing, this research shows that these individuals are more likely to go out and commit crimes and get reincarcerated," says Link. "That doesn't benefit anyone, including their family members and taxpayers."

Link recommends several practical and realistic health measures that could be implemented, including ensuring incarcerated individuals have a proper diet and exercise.

He notes that opponents of the plan might argue that providing cheap, low-quality food is saving taxpayer dollars. However, this paper suggests that it is only cost saving in the short term.

"If you exacerbate or cause these health issues to emerge, you are setting in motion processes that are worse and not beneficial for anyone in the long run," he says.

NASA's Terra satellite found one small area of strong storms left in Tropical Depression Flossie on August 5 as it neared Hawaii.

Although Flossie is not expected to make landfall, its center will stay over the Central Pacific and pass close enough to the Hawaiian Island chain to bring ocean swells and rainfall. NOAA's National Hurricane Center (NHC) said, "Swells generated by Flossie will continue to affect portions of the main Hawaiian Islands during the next day or two, producing dangerous surf conditions along east and southeast facing shores."

In addition, moisture associated with Flossie will spread over portions of the main Hawaiian Islands on Monday, bringing the potential for heavy rainfall. Total rainfall amounts of 1 to 4 inches are expected, with localized higher amounts.

 NASA's Terra satellite uses infrared light to analyze the strength of storms by providing temperature information about the system's clouds. The strongest thunderstorms that reach high into the atmosphere have the coldest cloud top temperatures.

On Aug. 5 at 4 a.m. EDT (0800 UTC), the Moderate Imaging Spectroradiometer or MODIS instrument that flies aboard NASA's Terra satellite gathered infrared data on Flossie, now weakened to a depression. The one small area of strong storms was northeast of the center where thunderstorms had cloud top temperatures as cold as minus 50 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 45.5 Celsius).

At 5 a.m. EDT (0900 UTC), the center of Tropical Depression Flossie was located near latitude 19.4 degrees north and longitude 151.3 degrees west. The depression is moving toward the west-northwest near 15 mph (24 kph). Maximum sustained winds are near 35 mph (55 kph) with higher gusts. The estimated minimum central pressure is 1009 millibars.

NHC said, "Weakening is forecast during the next couple days, with Flossie becoming a post-tropical remnant low Monday or Monday night, and dissipating on Tuesday, August 6."

For updated forecasts, visit: http://www.nhc.noaa.gov

NASA's Aqua satellite gazed into Tropical Storm Lekima as it moved through the Philippine Sea on August 5 and the AIRS instrument aboard took the temperature of its cloud tops to estimate storm strength.

Lekima formed early on Aug. 4 as Tropical Depression 10W and strengthened into a tropical storm on Aug. 5, when it was renamed Lekima.

NASA's Aqua satellite passed over Lekima on Aug. 5, at 0105 a.m. EDT (0505 UTC). The Atmospheric Infrared Sounder or AIRS instrument aboard NASA's Aqua satellite analyzed Lekima in infrared light and found cloud top temperatures of strongest thunderstorms as cold as or colder than minus 63 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 53 degrees Celsius) were wrapping into the low-level center from the south. Cloud top temperatures that cold indicate strong storms that have the capability to create heavy rain.

Strongest storms extend high into the troposphere and have very cold cloud top temperatures as cold as or colder than minus 63 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 53 degrees Celsius).

At 5 a.m. EDT (0900 UTC), the center of Tropical Storm Lekima was located near latitude 19.2 degrees north and 129.5 degrees east longitude. Lekima's center is about 456 nautical miles south-southeast of Kadena Air Base, Okinawa Island, Japan. It was moving to the northwest and had maximum sustained winds near 35 knots (40 mph/64 kph). In the Philippines, Lekima is called Hanna.

The Joint Typhoon Warning Center forecasts that Lekima will move northwest and make landfall over northern Taiwan on Aug. 9, then make a final landfall in mainland China.