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An international research collaboration, including scientists from the University of Adelaide's Waite Research Institute, has unlocked new genetic variation in wheat and barley - a major boost for the global effort in breeding higher-yielding wheat and barley varieties.

Researchers from the 10+ Wheat Genomes Project, led by Professor Curtis Pozniak (University of Saskatchewan, Canada), and the International Barley Pan Genome Sequencing Consortium, led by Professor Nils Stein (Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK), Germany), have sequenced a suite of genomes of both cereals, published today in the journal Nature. They say it will open the doors to the next generation of wheat and barley varieties.

"Wheat and barley are staple food crops around the world but their production needs to increase dramatically to meet future food demands," says the University of Adelaide's Associate Professor Ken Chalmers who, together with his School of Agriculture, Food & Wine colleague Professor Emeritus Peter Langridge, led the Adelaide research. "It is estimated that wheat production alone must increase by more than 50% over current levels by 2050 to feed the growing global population." Professor Chengdao Li at Murdoch University also played a key role in the Australian component of the barley sequencing.

Today's published research brings scientists closer to unlocking the entire gene set - or pan genomes - of wheat and barley. Through understanding the full extent of genetic variation in these cereals, researchers and plant breeders will have the necessary tools to realise the required increased global production.

"Advances in genomics have accelerated breeding and the improvement of yield and quality in crops including rice and maize, but similar efforts in wheat and barley have been more challenging," says Professor Langridge. "This is largely due to the size and complexity of their genomes, our limited knowledge of the key genes controlling yield, and the lack of genome assembly data for multiple lines of interest to breeders.

"Modern wheat and barley cultivars carry a wide range of gene variants and diverse genomic structures that are associated with important traits, such as increased yield, drought tolerance and disease resistance.

"This variation cannot be captured with a single genome sequence. Only by sequencing multiple and diverse genomes can we begin to understand the full extent of genetic variation, the pan genome."
The two international projects have sequenced multiple wheat and barley varieties from around the world. The Adelaide component was supported by the Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC).

"The information generated through these collaborative projects has revealed the dynamics of the genome structure and previously hidden genetic variation of these important crops, and shown how breeders have achieved major improvements in productivity. This work will support the delivery of the next generations of modern varieties," Associate Professor Chalmers says.

The inclusion of two Australian varieties of wheat, AGT-Mace (PBR) and Longreach-Lancer (PBR) reflecting both the southern and northern growing areas, means that potential genetic variation for adaptation to our different production environments can be identified.

The University of Adelaide also sequenced three barley varieties with desirable traits such as high-yield and potential for tolerance to heat, frost, salinity and drought, and novel disease resistance.

"These genome assemblies will drive functional gene discovery and equip researchers and breeders with the tools required to bring the next generation of modern wheat and barley cultivars that will help meet future food demands," says Associate Professor Ken Chalmers.

A variety of bread wheat that flourishes across Switzerland would remain just a poorly growing grass in India. This ability to adapt to regional climate conditions and environmental factors makes bread wheat the most commonly grown crop around the world. Its cultivation dates back around 8,000 years. Over time, more than 560,000 different varieties have developed. Seeds of each variety are stored in international seed vaults. Until now, however, the genetic factors responsible for the diversity and adaptability of wheat were largely unknown.

Genomes of 10 wheat varieties completely deciphered

Previously, the only bread wheat genome to have been decoded was from an old Chinese landrace. It has served as a model plant in research for many years, but differs greatly from the properties of more modern wheat varieties used in agriculture. Now an international consortium led by University of Saskatchewan wheat breeder Curtis Pozniak and involving more than 100 researchers from nine countries - including plant and evolutionary biologists from the University of Zurich (UZH) - has completely sequenced the genomes of 10 wheat varieties from North America, Asia, Australia and Europe. "The 10 varieties represent a significant portion of the worldwide variety of wheats. The genome data, which are freely available to all interested parties, constitute an important resource for humanity," says Beat Keller, professor at the UZH Department of Plant and Microbial Biology.

Chromosome fragments from wild grasses cross-hybridized

With around 100,000 genes on 21 chromosomes, the wheat genome is approximately five times larger than the human genome. Like other kinds of grains, the modern common wheat has a multiple set of chromosomes that came about through hybridization and combining of three different parent plants. "We were able to find numerous differences in the genome structure of the investigated wheat varieties. They differ in particular through large chromosome fragments which at some time in the past were cross-hybridized by wild grasses," adds UZH researcher Thomas Wicker, one of the corresponding authors of the study. While some of these fragments were transferred through targeted cultivation, the source of most fragments is still unknown.

Crossing of species boundaries leads to diversity

If chromosome fragments from wild grasses are crossed with wheat, the species boundary has been crossed. According to the researchers, this process is a significant biological factor behind the diversity and adaptability of wheat. This is exemplified by the large differences in the type and number of immune receptors they discovered in the genome sequences. "This variability shows that the different varieties have adapted to the regionally varying plant diseases, such as viruses and fungi, or pests, such as insects," says Wicker.

Meet rising demand thanks to more targeted cultivation

According to Kentaro Shimizu, UZH professor at the Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, triple chromosome sets of bread wheat gives it another evolutionary advantage: "Single genes can change while other copies of the same gene retain their original function. The plant then has a greater repertoire of possibilities for adaptation." Alongside the discovery of the genes for particular quality features and resistances, which are of agronomic significance - exemplified by the Japanese cultivar Norin 61 in an additional publication of the UZH researchers - , the "10+ Wheat Genome Project" also enables a more targeted cultivation of specific wheat varieties, which will help that the rising worldwide demand can be met in the future.

Scientists at Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute have shown that fruit flies that spent several weeks on the International Space Station (ISS)--about half of their lives--experienced profound structural and biochemical changes to their hearts. The study, published today in Cell Reports, suggests that astronauts who spend a lengthy amount of time in space--which would be required for formation of a moon colony or travel to distant Mars--could suffer similar effects and may benefit from protective measures to keep their hearts healthy. The research also revealed new insights that could one day help people on Earth who are on long-term bed rest or living with heart disease.

"For the first time, we can see the cellular and molecular changes that may underlie the heart conditions seen in astronaut studies," says Karen Ocorr, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Development, Aging and Regeneration Program at Sanford Burnham Prebys and co-senior author of the study. "We initiated this study to understand the effects of microgravity on the heart, and now we have a roadmap we can use to start to develop strategies to keep astronaut hearts strong and healthy."

Past studies have shown that under microgravity conditions, the human heart shifts from an oval to a more spherical shape. Space flight also causes the heart muscle to weaken (atrophy), reducing its ability to pump blood throughout the body. However, until now, human heart studies--completed using ultrasounds performed on the ISS--have been limited to a relatively small number of astronauts. While important, these studies didn't reveal the cellular and molecular changes that drive these transformations--information needed to develop countermeasures that will keep astronauts safe on prolonged flights.

"As we continue our work to establish a colony on the moon and send the first astronauts to Mars, understanding the effects of extended time in microgravity on the human body is imperative," says Sharmila Bhattacharya, Ph.D., senior scientist at NASA and a study author. "Today's results show that microgravity can have dramatic effects on the heart, suggesting that medical intervention may be needed for long-duration space travel, and point to several directions for therapeutic development."

Fruit flies are surprisingly good models for studying the human heart. The insects share nearly 75% of disease-causing genes found in humans, and their tube-shaped hearts mirror an early version of ours--which begins as a tube when we're in the womb and later folds into the four chambers with which we're familiar. Fortunately, fruit flies are also largely self-sustaining. All the food the flies needed for the duration of the trip were contained in special boxes designed for this study--allowing busy astronauts to focus on other tasks.

Journey to space

In the study, the scientists sent the special "vented fly boxes" containing vials filled with a few female and male fruit flies to the ISS for a one-month-long orbit. While in space, these flies produced hundreds of babies that experienced three weeks of microgravity--the human equivalent of three decades. The fruit flies that were born in space returned to Earth via a splashdown off the coast of Baja California. A member of the scientific team retrieved the flies from the Port of Long Beach and--very carefully--drove the specimens to Sanford Burnham Prebys' campus in La Jolla, California.

Once the flies arrived at the lab, the scientists sprang into action. Tests of heart function had to be taken within 24 hours of the return to Earth so gravity wouldn't interfere with the results. The researchers worked around the clock to measure the flies'

ability to climb up a test tube; to capture videos of the beating hearts to measure contractility and heart rate; and to preserve tissue for future genetic and biochemical assays, including mapping gene expression changes that occurred in the heart.

Extensive tissue remodeling

This work revealed that the space flies had smaller hearts that were less contractile--reducing their ability to pump blood and mirroring symptoms seen in astronauts. The heart tissue also underwent extensive remodeling. For example, the normally parallel muscle fibers became misaligned and lost contact with the surrounding fibrous structures that permit the heart to generate force--resulting in impaired pumping.

"In the normal fly heart, the muscle fibers work like your fingers when they squeeze a tube of toothpaste. In the space flies, the contraction was like trying to get toothpaste out by pressing down instead of squeezing," explains Ocorr. "For humans, this could become a big problem."

To the scientists' surprise, the fibrous extracellular matrix (ECM) surrounding the heart of the space flies was significantly reduced. After a heart injury such as a heart attack, this supportive tissue is often overproduced and interferes with heart function. For this reason, the interplay between the ECM and the heart is an active area of research for heart scientists.

"We were very excited to find several ECM-interacting proteins that were dysregulated in the space flies," says Rolf Bodmer, Ph.D., director and professor in the Development, Aging and Regeneration Program at Sanford Burnham Prebys and co-senior author of the study. "These proteins weren't previously on the radar of heart researchers, so this could accelerate the development of therapies that improve heart function by reducing fibrosis."

The tip of the iceberg

Ocorr and Bodmer are still busy analyzing genetic and molecular data from this study and believe these insights are the "tip of the iceberg" for this type of research. Vision problems are common in astronauts, so the scientists are also analyzing eye tissue from the space flies. Another area of interest relates to the babies of the flies that were born in space, which would help reveal any inherited effects of space flight. While astronaut health is the primary goal, people on Earth may ultimately be the greatest beneficiaries of this pioneering work.

"I am confident that heart disease research is going to benefit from the insights we're gaining from these flights," says Ocorr. "Understanding how the heart functions in space is also going to teach us more about how the heart works and can break on Earth."

It's hard to overstate how much of a game-changer it was when vertebrates first rose up from the waters and moved onshore about 390 million years ago. That transition led to the rise of the dinosaurs and all the land animals that exist today.

"Being able to walk around on land essentially set the stage for all biodiversity and established modern terrestrial ecosystems," said Stephanie Pierce, Thomas D. Cabot Associate Professor of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology and curator of vertebrate paleontology in the Museum of Comparative Zoology. "It represents an incredibly important period of time in evolutionary history."

Scientists have been trying for more than a century to unravel exactly how this remarkable shift took place, and their understanding of the process is largely based on a few rare, intact fossils with anatomical gaps between them. A new study from Pierce and Blake Dickson, Ph.D. '20, looks to provide a more thorough view by zeroing in on a single bone: the humerus.

The study, published today, shows how and when the first groups of land explorers became better walkers than swimmers. The analysis spans the fin-to-limb transition and reconstructs the evolution of terrestrial movement in early tetrapods. These are the four-limbed land vertebrates whose descendants include extinct and living amphibians, reptiles, and mammals.

The researchers focused on the humerus, the long bone in the upper arm that runs down from the shoulder and connects with the lower arm at the elbow, to get around the dilemma of gaps between well-preserved fossils. Functionally, the humerus is invaluable for movement because it hosts key muscles that absorb much of the stress from quadrupedal locomotion. Most importantly, the bone is found in all tetrapods and the fishes they evolved from and is pretty common throughout the fossil record. The bone represents a time capsule of sorts, with which to reconstruct the evolution of locomotion since it can be examined across the fin-to-limb transition, the researchers said.

"We went in with the idea that the humerus should be able to tell us about the functional evolution of locomotion as you go from being a fish that's just swimming around and as you come onto land and start walking," Dickson said.

The researchers analyzed 40 3D fossil humeri for the study, including new fossils collected by collaborators at the University of Cambridge as part of the TW:eed Project. The team looked at how the bone changed over time and its effect on how these creatures likely moved.

The analysis covered the transition from aquatic fishes to terrestrial tetrapods. It included an intermediate group of tetrapods with previously unknown locomotor capabilities. The researchers found that the emergence of limbs in this intermediate group coincided with a transition onto land, but that these early tetrapods weren't very good at moving on it.

To understand this, the team measured the functional trade-offs associated with adapting to different environments. They found that as these creatures moved from water to land, the humerus changed shape, resulting in new combinations of functional traits that proved more advantageous for life on land than in the water.

That made sense to the researchers. "You can't be good at everything," Dickson said. "You have to give up something to go from being a fish to being a tetrapod on land."

The researchers captured the changes on a topographical map showing where these early tetrapods stood in relation to water-based or land-based living. The scientists said these changes were likely driven by environmental pressures as these creatures adapted to terrestrial life.

The paper describes the transitional tetrapods as having an "L-shaped" humerus that provided some functional benefit for moving on land, but not much. These animals had a long way to go to develop the traits necessary to use their limbs on land to move with ease and skill.

As the humerus continued to change shape, tetrapods improved their movement. The "L" shaped humerus transformed into a more robust, elongated, twisted form, leading to new combinations of functional traits. This change allowed for more effective gaits on land and helped trigger biological diversity and expansion into terrestrial ecosystems. It also helped establish complex food chains based on predators, prey, herbivores, and carnivores still seen today.

Analysis took about four years to complete. Quantifying how the humerus changed shape and function took thousands of hours on a supercomputer. The researchers then analyzed how those changes impacted functional performance of the limb during locomotion and the trade-offs associated.

The innovative approach represents a new way of viewing and analyzing the fossil record -- an effort Pierce said was well worth it.

"This study demonstrates how much information you can get from such a small part of an animal's skeleton that's been recorded in the fossil record and how it can help unravel one of the biggest evolutionary transformations that has ever occurred," Pierce said. "This is really cutting-edge stuff."

Research based on 5425 citizens' responses to a questionnaire survey has illuminated that obesity causes are linked to various factors in addition to the individual's current socioeconomic circumstances, including childhood experiences, particularly those of abuse. The study was carried out by Project Professor TAMORI Yoshikazu (Division of Creative Health Promotion) et al.'s research group at the Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine.

Conventionally, there is a tendency to perceive individuals who are overweight as lacking the willpower to improve their lifestyle habits. However, this research study has revealed that in women, obesity in adulthood is linked not only to factors such as social environment (for example, economic circumstances and education), but also to childhood experiences, in particular abuse.

This suggests that improving child welfare, such as by increasing abuse prevention measures, will also help to prevent obesity in adults.

These research results are due to be published in the scientific journal PLOS ONE on November 25 at 2pm (EST).

Main Points

Analysis of 5425 responses to a questionnaire survey given to 20,000 Kobe citizens revealed that in women, obesity was related to the individual's social and economic background (for example, factors such as marital status, economic circumstances, educational background, and childhood experiences of abuse by a parent).

The same connection was not found in results from male participants.

This study is the first in Japan to illuminate the connection between abuse during childhood and obesity in adulthood.

Socioeconomic factors also have an impact on obesity in women. Therefore, it is important to approach obesity prevention efforts not only from a medical standpoint but also from a societal perspective, including the authorities.

Research Background

Obesity is increasing worldwide against a background of lifestyle habits such as overeating and insufficient exercise. In Japan, approximately 1 in 3 men and 1 in 5 women are overweight. Obesity causes various disorders such as Type-2 diabetes, dyslipidemia, high blood pressure, heart disease, fatty liver, stroke and sleep apnea, thus shortening healthy life expectancy.

There is a strong relationship between obesity and lifestyle habits, however it has been reported overseas that various aspects of individuals' social backgrounds also have an effect. In Japan, this kind of survey study had yet to be carried out. In addition, there are racial and cultural differences between Japan and overseas. Therefore, this study aimed to understand the relationship between obesity and social background based on the results of a survey carried out in Japan.

Revealing the relationship between obesity and the individual's social background will make a large contribution towards measures to tackle and prevent obesity.

Research Results

In 2018, the Kobe City authorities distributed a survey to 20,000 citizens aged between 20 and 64 about aspects such as their living conditions and health issues in order to gain an understanding of residents' health. Based on the results of this questionnaire, Professor Tamori investigated what sort of personal living conditions were connected to obesity, which has been called 'the cause of all kinds of diseases'.

There were more obese male respondents (27.2%) than female respondents (10.6%), which is the same as the national trend in Japan. When the researchers investigated the social and personal factors that were linked to obesity, they found that there were differences in the following categories between obese women and those with an average weight: employment status, household economic circumstances, educational background, extracurricular activities during middle school/high school, economic circumstances at age 15, and experiences of adversity during childhood. Furthermore, marital status, household economic circumstances, educational background, and experiences of adversity during childhood were factors that could predict the onset of obesity (Figure 1). On the other hand, no statistical differences were found between the surveyed categories in men (Figure 2).

Experiences of adversity during childhood included physical violence from a parent, insufficient food or clothing, and emotional trauma originating from a parent's comments or insults.

The results of this research have revealed that although obesity is more prevalent in men, the social background of the individual is strongly connected to the onset of obesity in women. In particular, this study is the first in Japan to show a connection between experiences of childhood abuse and obesity in adult women (see supplementary explanation).

Research Significance and Further Research

It has been reported that social and economic factors such as income and educational background are linked to obesity in women living in developed countries. The current study showed that in Kobe, a representative large city of Japan, obesity in women is also related to socioeconomic background.

The main causes of obesity are conventionally considered to be overeating and insufficient exercise. Consequently, there is a tendency to perceive those who are overweight as lacking in self-discipline and being weak-willed. However, this study has revealed that in women, the social background of the individual is also connected to the onset of obesity. This highlights the importance of taking social factors into account when implementing policies to tackle obesity.

Childhood abuse counselling cases are increasing in Japan. This research indicates that improving child welfare by, for example, strengthening measures against abuse, could be connected to obesity prevention.

Supplementary Explanation

Studies conducted overseas have reported that experience of childhood abuse (physical, psychological and sexual abuse, and neglect) not only leads to obesity in adulthood but is also linked to general ill health, such as increased habitual smoking. Those who have experienced abuse are believed to develop a reliance on sugary or high-fat 'tasty' foods more easily and to be more prone to overeating when stressed.

Researcher Comment (Project Professor TAMORI Yoshikazu)

There are differences in the way men and women perceive weight. 'Thinness' is more easily associated with 'health and beauty' in women than in men. Sufficient socioeconomic means are required to pursue this ideal of 'health and beauty', therefore it is probable that socioeconomic difficulties have a stronger impact on obesity in women. In addition, it is possible that the upbringing environment during childhood may cause individuals to be predisposed towards becoming overweight through 'body changes' (i.e. biotransformation) such as those resulting from the secretion of hormones. The existence of these kinds of changes has not been illuminated, however it is likely that their impact is different in men and women.

A research team from RUDN University developed an algorithm to help large groups of people make optimal decisions in a short time. They confirmed the efficiency of their model using the example of the market at which the outbreak of COVID-19 began. The model helped the administration and sellers agree on closing the market and reach a consensus about the sums of compensations in just three steps. An article about the algorithm was published in the Information Sciences journal.

Decision theory is a field of mathematics that studies the patterns of decision making and strategy selection. In the terms of mathematics, decision making is an optimization task with multiple criteria. Expert opinions, judgments, and possible risks are considered variables, and the relations between participants and the search for an optimal solution are expressed as mathematical operations. LSGDM is a model in decision theory that describes decision making situations with over 20 expert-level participants. Their opinions are affected by personal relations: for example, friends support each other's views. This increases the level of uncertainty because convincing the participants and reaching a consensus becomes more difficult. A research team of mathematicians from RUDN University suggested a method to eliminate this uncertainty.

"Thanks to today's technological developments, more and more people start to participate in decision-making processes. That is why LSGDM has become a burning issue for researchers. In LSGDM, participants represent different areas of interest, and therefore it takes longer for them to reach a consensus. The process requires a moderator capable of convincing all parties to adjust their opinions," said Prof. Enrique Herrera-Viedma, research team's leader in RUDN University.

The solution suggested by his team of mathematicians is based on the so-called robust optimization technique. It is applied to optimization tasks that are sensitive to changes in the initial data (in this case, in the personal relations between the participants). The mathematicians suggested a new way of categorizing experts into clusters based on relationship strength and the level of trust between them. The algorithm consisted of several steps. First, the experts were clusterized; then, the team identified a cluster with the opinion that differed the most from the collective judgment; and after that, such opinion was corrected. The iterations were repeated until all participants agreed on one solution. The methods of opinion correction were irrelevant from the mathematical point of view. The only factor that mattered was the unit negotiation cost: the amount of resources (time, money, etc.) that had to be spent to reach the desired result.

The research team applied the model to a real-life example. After the outbreak of COVID-19, a seafood market in Wuhan had to be closed down. The administration was looking for an optimal solution: it had to compensate the losses of the sellers while staying within the market's budget. The mathematicians chose 20 sellers that requested different sums of compensation for closing their stalls: from 200 to 900 yuans. The participants were divided into four clusters based on such factors as similar opinions, the proximity of stalls to each other, and so on. The algorithm suggested by the team let the sellers and the administrators reach a consensus in just three steps. The final sum of compensation was 880 yuans, and the negotiation cost for the market administration turned out to be the lowest compared to other existing models.

A study published recently in the journal Review of Financial Studies by the researchers Javier Gil-Bazo, Sergio Mayordomo and Peter Hoffmann, shows clear evidence that in Spain, bank-affiliated funds provided funding support to their parent company via purchases of bonds in the primary market during the last crisis (2008-2012).

Cost-benefit calculation by conglomerates

The research is the first international study of the use of mutual funds managed by companies controlled by banks as an alternative source of funding for banking institutions. The researchers study whether conglomerates strategically consider the benefits of this practice, and if the availability of this alternative source of funding helps banks overcome periods of financial difficulty.

To minimize the cost of mutual funding, it is more common to use funds aimed at retail investors and funds without performance fees. This suggests that this form of funding is the result of a strategic decision taken at conglomerate level.

In their research, the authors found that the financial support provided by subsidiary mutual fund managers to their parent banks is greater in times of crisis and for riskier banks. According to the authors, the conflict of interest they analyse arises only in extraordinary circumstances such as those experienced by European and Spanish banks after Lehman Brothers went bankrupt in 2008.

While funding funds of affiliates is of little value to banks in normal times, it is valuable in times of financial crisis. The possibility of the parent bank using this alternative source of funding remains latent until a banking crisis occurs. This practice is more common among banks that rely more on central bank liquidity, that have a higher ratio of nonperforming loans and have experienced a reduction in their credit rating.

Analysis of Spanish banks during the period 2000-2012

The study uses data from mutual funds affiliated to Spanish banks in the period 2000-2012. According to the authors, Spain is an especially suitable laboratory for the research goal for three reasons: its mutual fund industry is dominated by the banks; the Spanish banking sector entered a period of serious crisis after the Lehman crash in 2008, which increased their dependence on central banks and competition for stable sources of funding; and finally, because, unlike the US, related transactions were not prohibited in Spain.

The study found that during the period 2000-2012, totalling all the funds of the same asset management group, excess debt purchases by the parent bank of the funds of its affiliates accounted, on average, for 2.85% of the total amount issued for the entire period analysed, which corresponds to 514 million euros per bank, or 14,400 million euros overall. While support from funding is absent in normal times, it accounts for 7% of the amount issued in times of crisis (11,900 million euros overall). This funding allowed banks to ease their financial constraints and facilitate access to credit by Spanish businesses in the context of the crisis.

Changes in regulations in Spain, which remain lax and do not favour fund investors

Unlike the US, in Spain transactions with companies of the same group are not prohibited for mutual funds, due to falling under the European regulatory framework relating to conflicts of interests in asset management. The regulation is based on the establishment of rules of conduct to prevent conflicts of interest or to minimize the impact on investors. This approach may not be effective in protecting investors of mutual funds, according to the authors.

In February 2018, the Comisión Nacional del Mercado de Valores (CNMV) national securities market commission established new rules whereby prior authorization is required for these transactions. Authorization must take into account any conflicts of interest that may arise, which means that asset management companies must explicitly declare that a transaction is made in the investors' best interests. The authors also propose a new regulatory approach that includes improving the transparency of related party transactions and their potential costs for investors and provide investors with tools that facilitate the comparison of yield, fees and risks between funds.

Ataxia is a minority disease with genetic origins, known for its neuromuscular alterations due to the selective loss of neurons in the cerebellum, the organ of our nervous systems which controls movement and balance. UB researchers have identified new functions in the ataxin 3 gene (ATXN3) -which causes Machado-Joseph disease, the most common type of ataxia- in the development of retina photoreceptors. According to the researchers, these results are not only relevant to analyse the molecular causes of ataxia and for the design of potential therapies against the disease but also to understand other diseases, such as macular degenerations.

The study, published in the journal Cell Reports, is led by Gemma Marfany, professor at the Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics and researcher at the Institute of Biomedicine of the UB (IBUB) and the Rare Diseases Networking Biomedical Research Centre (CIBERER). Among other participants are the experts from the same Department, Vasileios Toulis, Sílvia García Monclús, Carlos de la Peña Ramírez, Rodrigo Arenas Galnares, Josep F. Abril and Alejandro Garanto, as well as other researchers from the University of Michigan and the Wayne State University (United States).

The Machado-Josep disease, also known as spinocerebellar ataxia-3, is caused by gain of function mutations in the ATXN3 gene. These mutations induce the formation of neurotoxic aggregates that involve the progressive death pf neurons in the cerebellum. However, not much is known about the basic function of the ATXN3 gene. In this context, the UB team has conducted its research for more than twenty years on the genetic causes of hereditary diseases in the retina, a neurosensorial tissue part of the central nervous system and which is in charge of our sight. "In previous studies, our group found that ATXN3 is expressed in a relevant way in the retina of an adult mouse, but it does so during the development of this tissue, so we suggested that we should find out the function of this gene in the retina", notes Gemma Marfany.

Alterations in the structure of the retina

With this objective, researchers carried out several experiments where they silenced ATXN3 in zebrafish embryos, and later, they analysed the effects of make this gene unusable in a genetically modified mouse. According to the researchers, the results show that the removal of ATXN3 causes severe alterations in the structure of the retina. Therefore, they could identify a new function of the protein of this gene.

"The model organisms we analysed, both fish and mice, presented an elongation of the photoreceptor cilium, the organelles that receive the light photons and that turn light energy into electric one", notes Gemma Marfany.

"Any alteration in these cilia -continues the researcher- alters the function of photoreceptors and can cause its death, and therefore, can cause blindness".

Moreover, the lack of ATXN3 protein affects the retina epithelium, a layer of pigmented cells that appear in the external part of the retina and which phagocytizes the ends of the cilia to allow these to renew themselves every day. According to the new study, without the ATXN3 gene, this phagocytosis slows down, and it alters the renewal -which is necessary for the retina to function. "All these alterations can be explained if the ATXN3 regulates the necessary proteins for the formation and growth of microtubules that cross the cell on the inside and that act as railways to transport the required proteins for the formation of the cilium and a proper function of the phagocytosis", describes the researcher.

Impact on other eye diseases

The importance of these results is an advance in the understanding of molecular causes of rare diseases such as ataxia, and other diseases as well. "The study provides new keys on ho basic functions are regulated in the neurons, among which we find the photoreceptors. The alteration of these functions contributes to other eye diseases, such as macular degeneration, an eye disorder that destroys the sight slowly, and which affects a great amount of population", concludes Marfany.

A new study in Frontiers in Psychology suggests that high national math achievement combined with societal pressures may contribute to how well girls and boys like math. Past research has shown that achievement-driven cultures frequently correlate with less enthusiasm for learning subjects like math. This study of over 500,000 eighth graders from 50 countries is the first to show that girls appear even more susceptible to this effect, providing insights into how to close this gender gap.

"I think we need to look more critically at the idea that we can judge a country's school system mainly on the achievement level its pupils attain--other important aspects, such as pupils feeling interested in their schoolwork, may get lost in the process," says the author, Prof Kimmo Eriksson of Mälardalen University College and Stockholm University in Sweden. "It seems that cultures that promote high achievement in math may also tend to kill many pupils' interest in math schoolwork and I found that this negative effect of high-achievement culture was stronger among girls than among boys."

Eriksson used the results from the multinational Trends in Mathematics and Science Survey (TIMSS) from 2011 and 2015 to look at trends between math performance and students' interest levels. Although the survey had been performed in prior years, 2011 and 2015 were the first years when the survey included both a math test as well as a questionnaire about the students' interest in what they were learning.

The results showed that girls were significantly less interested in math in countries like Japan, Hong Kong, Sweden and New Zealand. But, surprisingly, the roles were reversed in countries like Oman, Malaysia, Palestine and Kazakhstan, where girls were far more engaged in the subject.

One particularly striking result was that whichever way national interest levels trended, the effect was more pronounced among girls. Eriksson named this effect 'female amplification' and suggests that this may be due to girls' stronger tendency to conform to peer influence.

It is important to note that these findings only imply correlation. Additional research is needed to better understand the underlying factors that cause these differences. But these observations may provide useful guidance for how to promote both math interest as well as achievement for girls and boys. Countries such as Singapore have also shown that it is possible to have both high interest and high performance, and further study of these school systems may help improve teaching methods elsewhere.

"By highlighting how girls' interest in schoolwork is especially sensitive to high-achievement culture, perhaps my work can make researchers and policy-makers recognize and address this challenge: How can schools promote high achievement in mathematics without killing pupils' interest in their schoolwork?" says Eriksson.

With new insights into how the genetic tool CRISPR - which allows direct editing of our genes - evolved and adapted, we are now one step closer to understanding the basis of the constant struggle for survival that takes place in nature. The results can be used in future biotechnologies.

In 2020, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry goes to Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer A. Doudna for their discoveries of the molecular mechanism behind CRISPR-Cas and the use of the technology as a genetic tool. Although CRISPR-Cas has found many uses in biotechnology and medicine, it originates in nature, where it functions as a microbial immune system.

Just as our immune system remembers the pathogens we have been exposed to earlier in life, CRISPR-Cas provides microorganisms with an ability to respond quickly to viruses they have previously encountered by storing a small amount of the viral DNA in their own genome.

CRISPR-Cas is found naturally in most bacteria as well as the so-called archaea. When examining the origin of life on Earth, archaea are particularly interesting, as they form a kind of "missing link" between bacteria and the cells of higher eukaryotes like our own. Studies of these organisms can therefore provide us with important insights into how the CRISPR-Cas immune system has evolved over hundreds of millions of years.

New results reveal why toxins are present among CRISPR-Cas genes

New research results from researchers at the Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University - obtained in close collaboration with leading researchers from the University of Copenhagen and Old Dominion University in Virginia, USA, and published in two articles in leading, international journals - now shed new light on how CRISPR-Cas emerged early during the development of life on Earth, as well as how this immune system is constantly adapting to new challenges.

The research group from Aarhus - led by Associate Professor Ditlev E. Brodersen - has discovered how a part of CRISPR-Cas that is responsible for incorporating foreign, viral DNA into the microorganism's own genome has originated from another, very common type of genes in bacteria and archaea that surprisingly encode toxins.

The new knowledge therefore provides insights into an evolutionary process in which the toxin genes were present early during the development of life, and over time were integrated and adapted as part of the CRISPR-Cas modules that many microorganisms possess to this day. For the first time, we have an answer to a question that has puzzled researchers for a long time, namely why toxin genes exist among the CRISPR-Cas genes.

- "This understanding of how certain proteins are 'recycled' in several different situations, is enormously useful for researchers," explains Ditlev Brodersen, "because when we understand the entire repertoire of functions that certain proteins possess, it opens up for the possibility of using them as specific tools in genetic engineering. For example, it might be possible to get disease-causing bacteria to direct their CRISPR-Cas systems towards themselves and thus avoid infection."

A constant battle between microorganisms and viruses

In another article, published in the renowned journal, Nature Communications, the researchers describe new findings that provide insights into the constant battle between microorganisms and the viruses that represent their worst enemies.

In a boiling mud puddle on Iceland lives a very special organism, an archaea called Sulfolobus islandicus, which for millions of years has adapted to life in this place, that with a constant temperature of 80-100°C and an acidity corresponding to stomach acid constitutes one of the most inhospitable places on earth.

But even though Sulfolobus has chosen a very unattractive place to live, it still encounters resistance, not the least from small, rod-shaped DNA viruses that constantly poke holes in the cells and shoot their foreign DNA into them, causing Sulfolobus to explode in a wealth of new virus particles. To avoid this fate, Sulfolobus has developed a CRISPR-Cas defence, by which it has stored small parts of the viral DNA in its own genome to be able to withstand these attacks.

Anti-CRISPR - Upsetting the applecart

But in the constantly escalating battle between life and death, the virus has developed a countermeasure: It has managed to cope by producing a small weapon, an anti-CRISPR protein that, like upsetting the applecart, blocks the CRISPR-Cas response in Sulfolobus.

The new results from Ditlev E. Brodersen's group at Aarhus University - generated in close collaboration with Associate Professor Xu Peng from the Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen - now for the first time show how this fight takes place in the boiling pools.

The researchers have been able to visualise how the anti-CRISPR protein binds strongly to the largest protein of the CRISPR-Cas system, thereby directly preventing it from destroying the viral DNA. In this way, the virus bypasses - at least for some time - being beated off by CRISPR-Cas. The new results give scientists insights into the arms race that is constantly taking place in nature, and how the evolution of life is in fact a constant struggle for survival.

- "We now know the details of how the anti-CRISPR protein can block the CRISPR-Cas immune system, so the question is what will be the next move in this arms race," says Ditlev Brodersen. "Perhaps the microbes will begin to form anti-anti-CRISPR proteins, a third type of protein that can prevent the anti-CRISPR protein from working, but we have yet to find these in Sulfolobus archaea. So right now the ball is back on Sulfolobus' half of the field", says Ditlev Brodersen, "and the cold war is always warm in the boiling pool".

Scientists from NUST MISIS have improved the technology of 3D printing from aluminum, having achieved an increase in the hardness of products by 1,5 times. The nanocarbon additive to aluminum powder, which they have developed, obtained from the products of processing associated petroleum gas, will improve the quality of 3D printed aerospace composites. The research results are published in the international scientific journal Composites Communications

Today, the main field of application for aluminum 3D printing is the creation of high-tech parts for the aviation and space industries. The presence of even the slightest defects in printed structures is critical to the safety of the technology being created. According to NUST MISIS scientists, the main risk of such defects is the high porosity of the material, caused, among other reasons, by the qualities of the original aluminum powder. To ensure a uniform and dense microstructure of printed products, scientists from the MISIS Catalis Lab proposed adding carbon nanofibers to the aluminum powder. The use of this modifying additive makes it possible to ensure a low porosity of the material and an increase in its hardness by 1.5 times.

"Changing the chemical and phase composition of the powder for printing by introducing additional components into the main matrix allows improving its properties. In particular, carbon nanofibers have high thermal conductivity, which helps to minimize temperature gradients between printed layers during product synthesis, at the stage of selective laser melting. Thanks to this, the microstructure of the material can be almost completely eliminated from inhomogeneities," said the head of the laboratory, professor at NUST MISIS, Ph.D. Alexander Gromov.

The technology for the synthesis of nanocarbon additives developed by the research team includes methods of chemical deposition, ultrasonic treatment, and IR heat treatment. The used carbon nanofibers must be a by-product of associated petroleum gas processing. During its catalytic decomposition, carbon accumulates in the form of nanofibers on dispersed metal particles of the catalyst. Usually, at present, associated gases are simply burned in the fields, which harms the environment. Therefore, the application of the new method also has a serious environmental significance, -- said Professor Gromov. The study has been carried out jointly with specialists from the Boreskov Institute of Catalysis SB RAS. In the future, the research team plans to determine the optimal conditions for selective laser melting of new composite powders, as well as to develop a technology for post-processing and industrial use of synthesized products.

The term "superfood" is not legally regulated. Superfoods, however, are often referred to as foods whose ingredients are considered particularly beneficial to health - for example, due to their high content of vitamins or minerals and fibre. Only 8 percent of respondents associate health risks with the consumption of superfoods.

"Superfood products are often not sufficiently investigated to be able to evaluate them from a health perspective," says BfR President Professor Dr. Dr. Andreas Hensel. "A balanced and varied diet remains the best basis for staying healthy. This can be supported by the consumption of imported superfoods just as by the consumption of local fruits and vegetables."

Link to the Consumer Monitor special on superfoods:
https://www.bfr.bund.de/cm/364/bfr-consumer-monitor-2020-special-superfoods.pdf

Link to the superfoods A-Z index:
https://www.bfr.bund.de/en/a-z_index/superfoods-259079.html

In Germany, 70 percent of the respondents have already heard of the term "superfood". About half see high health benefits in these foods. The main benefits cited are the content of vitamins, a generally positive effect on the body and a strengthening of the immune system. One third of respondents have superfoods on their menu at least once a week. However, almost 40 percent state that they do not consume any superfoods at all.

Compared to local foods, the majority tend to label imported foods, such as chia seeds, goji berries and quinoa, as superfoods. Yet, local foods often provide comparable health benefits. For example, blackcurrants present an alternative to goji berries due to their high content of vitamin C just as linseed, with its high content of proteins and omega-3 fatty acids, shares similarities with the nutritional profile of chia seeds.

About two out of five respondents consider the health benefits of superfoods to be scientifically proven. Just as many assume that superfood products are tested for health safety before they are available in Germany.

This particularly applies to superfoods that were rarely used for consumption in the European Union before 1997 and are, therefore, considered to be novel foods. They have to go through strict approval procedures, including an official health safety assessment. Thus far, this has applied to chia seeds, for example.

However, some superfood products, such as certain food supplements, consist of extracts or preparations of plant-based superfoods, which may contain potentially harmful substances in concentrated form. The lack of standards in extraction procedures or partly insufficient data from studies can make the health risk assessment of these products difficult. For this reason, they cannot be compared to the plant-based superfoods from which they are derived.

Only 8 percent of respondents believe that superfoods can pose health risks. Even though the positive effect of these foods for the health usually takes centre stage, certain ingredients and contaminants can be harmful to health if consumed excessively. In some cases, superfoods can also trigger intolerances or allergic reactions.

More detailed information on the possible health risks of superfoods can be found at: https://www.bfr.bund.de/cm/343/superfoods-super-gut.pdf (in German)

Products derived from nanotechnology are efficient and highly sought-after, yet their effects on the environment are still poorly understood. A research team from the University of Geneva (UNIGE), working in collaboration with the University of California at Santa Barbara, have investigated the effects of nanosilver, currently used in almost 450 products for its antibacterial properties, on the algae known as Poterioochromonas malhamensis. The results - published in the journal Scientific Reports - show that nanosilver and its derivative, ionic silver, disturb the alga's entire metabolism. Its membrane becomes more permeable, the cellular reactive oxygen species increases and photosynthesis is less effective. The Swiss-American team was able to demonstrate for the first time the metabolic perturbations induced by nanosilver following its uptake in the food vacuoles of freshwater algae, paving the way for early detection of the metabolic changes before they express themselves physiologically.

The nanosilver is used for its antibacterial properties and is employed in textiles and cosmetics, inter alia. In addition, the agro-food, biomedical and biopharmaceutical industry is interested in it for developing drugs, devices and pesticides. «Since nanosilver is designed to destroy, repel or render harmless noxious organisms such as bacteria, scientists have realised that it might also be harmful to organisms that are crucial to our environment,» begins Vera Slaveykova from the Department F.A. Forel for Environmental and Aquatic Sciences in UNIGE's Faculty of Sciences. To assess the influence of nanotechnology products on phytoplankton and to evaluate the impacts on aquatic environment, the researcher team conducted a study on the alga Poterioochromonas malhamensis as a model phytoplankton species. «The phytoplankton are everywhere, in lakes and oceans," continues Professor Slaveykova. «As a whole, phytoplankton generate almost half of the oxygen we breathe. And they have a second essential role, since they are at the base of the food chain. If they accumulate nanoparticles, these will be integrated into the aquatic food chain».

Multiple disturbances

The study led by Professor Slaveykova shows that treating the algae with nanosilver disrupts the metabolism of the amino acids that are vital for producing cellular proteins, the nucleotide metabolism that is important for genes, and fatty and tricarboxylic acids making up the membranes, as well as the photosynthesis and photorespiration elements.

The study results suggest that the silver ions released by the silver nanoparticles are the main toxicity factor. «The nanosilver is internalised in the algal cells by the phagocytotic mechanism used to supply cells with organic matter,» continues Professor Slaveykova. The study is the first to demonstrate that nanoparticles can follow such internalisation path in a species of phytoplankton. «These measurements were carried out in Geneva by Dr Liu using transmission electron microscopy. This entry mechanism is only known in Poterioochromonas malhamensis; it is still unknown if other phytoplankton species express it,» explains the Geneva researcher.

To finish demonstrating nanosilver's toxicity, the international research team highlighted the fact that metabolic disturbances induce physiological dysfunctions. Professor Slaveykova observed lipid peroxidation leading to membrane permeabilization, increased oxidative stress and less efficient photosynthesis - and, it follows, reduced oxygen production.

An Approach That Needs to Be Implemented

The study underlines the full potential of metabolomics geared towards the molecular basis of the disruptions observed. «It's a fundamental contribution to the field: although the metabolomics approaches are properly in place in medical and pharmaceutical sciences, it's not at all the case for environmental toxicology where phytoplankton metabolomics is still in its infancy. The metabolomics is, therefore, a technique that offers the possibility of early detection of changes induced by a toxin, upstream of more global effects such as the alga growth inhibition and their impact on oxygen production. As it's never easy to demonstrate the relationships between cause and effect in complex environment, it is now essential to use approaches like these.»

The gasp of surprise. Fans leap to their feet. Shouts ring out.

The most exciting moments in sports are often linked to surprise, an unexpected change of circumstances that abruptly shifts the anticipated outcome of the game.

Princeton neuroscientist James Antony decided to capitalize on these moments to study how human brains process surprise.

"We're trying to figure out how people update their understanding of things that are occurring in the real world, based on how events unfold over time -- how they set up these contextually-based predictions, and what happens when those are confirmed or contradicted," said Antony, a CV Starr Fellow in Neuroscience and the first author on a paper published today in the journal Neuron.

The researchers observed 20 self-identified basketball fans as they watched the last five minutes of nine games from the 2012 men's NCAA March Madness tournament. While they watched the games, a specialized camera tracked their eye movements and functional MRI scans measured their neural activity. The scientists chose basketball because the frequent scoring provided more opportunities to observe how the brain responded to changes.

"This study has both theoretical significance, in terms of testing and refining models of how surprise affects the brain and behavior, and also popular science appeal," said Ken Norman, the senior author on the paper, who is the Huo Professor in Computational and Theoretical Neuroscience and the chair of the Department of Psychology. "Sporting events like the NCAA tournament are both incredibly compelling and also hyper-quantifiable -- you can assess, moment-by-moment, exactly how probable an outcome will be, given what happened in previous games -- making them an ideal domain for studying how cognitive processes like memory, event understanding and emotional responses work in the real world. James' paper is the first to unlock the potential of this approach."

At surprising moments in the March Madness games -- key turnovers, last-minute three-pointers -- a typical participant would register rapid pupil dilation and shifts in the pattern of activity in high-level areas of the brain areas like the prefrontal cortex.

"There's a lot of nuance -- it's not like 'Surprise is surprise is surprise is surprise,'" Antony said. "Different kinds of surprises have different effects that we observed in different brain systems."

One interesting result was that shifts in the pattern of activity in high-level brain areas only happened at moments that contradicted the watchers' current beliefs about which team was more likely to win. "This fits with the idea that patterns in these areas reflect the story of the game, and that the chapters of this story are defined by which team has momentum," Norman said.

The researchers received help from legendary basketball statistician Ken Pomeroy to create a "win-probability graph," a tracker for which team was most likely to win at any given moment. Sport websites and sports announcers have long used win-probability graphs to quantify the likely impact of any given turnover or basket.

What the scientists realized was that avid sports fans have an intuitive version of that graph in their heads, Antony said.

"You can tell this by the way people react to things," he said. "We're measuring it in this somewhat confined setting here, but if you imagine two friends watching a championship game, and there's a huge moment, one might get so excited that they tackle their friend over the couch. That doesn't happen at a moment that isn't eventful or only has a minimal impact on the overall outcome."

"People really do have win-probability graphs in their heads," Norman said. "When the win-probability graph shifts in either direction, that leads to better memory for that part of the game, and it seems to affect pupillary response in addition to memory. There's an interesting association between those things."

Historically, neuroscientists studying surprise have created very stripped-down experiments to build a particular expectation, then violate it.

"As a field, we've been eager to see whether the principles that we've come up with -- based on these very simplified scenarios -- apply in real life," Norman said. "The challenge is that in real life, it's hard to pinpoint the moment when the surprise occurs, or how big the surprise was. Sports let us precisely quantify surprise in a real-world setting, giving us the perfect opportunity to see whether these ideas about surprise generalize outside of the lab."

Stars produce their energy through nuclear fusion by converting hydrogen into helium - a process known to researchers as "hydrogen burning". There are two ways of carrying out this fusion reaction: on the one hand, the so-called pp cycle (proton-proton reaction) and the Bethe Weizsäcker cycle (also known as the CNO cycle, derived from the elements carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and oxygen (O)) on the other hand.

The pp cycle is the predominant energy source in our Sun, only about 1.6 per mil of its energy comes from the CNO cycle. However, the Standard Solar Model (SSM) predicts that the CNO cycle is probably the predominant reaction in much larger stars. As early as the 1930s, the cycle was theoretically predicted by the physicists Hans Bethe and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker and subsequently named after these two gentlemen. While the pp cycle could already be experimentally proven in 1992 at the GALLEX experiment, also in the Gran Sasso massif, the experimental proof of the CNO cycle has so far not been successful.

Both the pp cycle and the CNO cycle produce countless neutrinos - very light and electrically neutral elementary particles. The fact that neutrinos hardly interact with other matter allows them to leave the interior of the sun at almost the speed of light and to transport the information about their origin to earth unhindered. Here the ghost particles have no more than to be captured. This is a rather complex undertaking, which is only possible in a few large-scale experiments worldwide, since neutrinos show up as small flashes of light in a huge tank full of a mixture of water, mineral oil and other substances, also called scintillator. The evaluation of the measured data is complex and resembles looking for a needle in a haystack.

Compared to all previous and ongoing solar neutrino experiments, Borexino is the first and only experiment worldwide that is able to measure these different components individually, in real time and with a high statistical power. This week, the Borexino research collaboration was able to announce a great success: In the renowned scientific journal Nature, they present their results on the first experimental detection of CNO neutrinos - a milestone in neutrino research.

Dresden physicist Professor Kai Zuber is a passionate neutrino hunter.

He is involved in many different experiments worldwide, such as the SNO collaboration in Canada, which was awarded the Nobel Prize for its discovery of a neutrino mass. The fact that with Borexino, he and his colleagues Dr Mikko Meyer and Jan Thurn have now succeeded in experimentally proving the CNO neutrinos for the first time is another major milestone in Zuber's scientific career: "Actually, I have now achieved everything I had imagined and hoped for. I (almost) no longer believe in great new discoveries in solar neutrino research for the rest of my lifetime. However, I would like to continue working on the optimization of the experiments, in which the Felsenkeller accelerator here in Dresden plays an extremely important role. For sure, we will be able to have even more precise measurements of the Sun in the future."