Culture

The IBeA research group from the University of the Basque Country's Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, is participating in NASA's Mars2020 space mission, which is scheduled to touch down on Mars in February this year. Specifically, the group has participated in constructing and verifying the chemical homogeneity of the templates included on the calibration card of the SuperCam instrument mounted on the Perseverance. 'We made a set of pads perfectly characterised in accordance the instruments we have here, in order to enable us to verify that the LIBS and Raman spectroscopy measurements taken by the SuperCam are correct,' explains Doctor Cristina García-Florentino. 'Raman spectroscopy is a technique for determining the molecular composition of unknown samples,' she continues. 'In other words, not only can we determine, for example, whether the sample contains calcium or iron, etc., we can also identify the molecular form in which they are present. Thus, we can see whether they contain calcite or gypsum, for example. We can determine the geochemical composition of the planet'.

At the same time, the research group is also working on characterising meteorites, with a twofold objective: 'Firstly, to get ready for the information that may be sent from Mars by the Perseverance rover; and secondly, to develop non-destructive analytical strategies for characterising Martian samples from the return mission (Mars Sample Return mission) when it reaches Earth'. To date, Martian meteorites have been the only Martian samples available for developing different analysis methods. In a recent study, the group has proposed an innovative non-destructive analytical strategy that could be added to the current arsenal of fast analysis techniques which can be used with future samples.

To demonstrate its capabilities, the group has used their analytical proposal to 'characterise the Martian meteorite Dar al Gani 735, with the aim of identifying the terrestrial and non-terrestrial alterations suffered by it, as a very valuable complementary methodology to the more traditional petrographic analyses,' explains Dr García-Florentino.

Access may be uncertain

In the researcher's opinion, 'this study demonstrates the potential of Raman spectroscopy as a key technique in the new upcoming explorations of Mars materials by the Rosalind Franklin rover (the ESA's Exomars2022 mission) and the Perseverance rover (NASA's Mars2020 mission), on which Raman spectrometers will be mounted for the first time in an extra-terrestrial research mission in the field'. According to Dr García-Florentino, the technique is important 'because, once we have samples brought back directly from Mars, we cannot destroy them to analyse them in the initial stages of study. It is therefore important to be ready for when the Martian samples arrive, in order to gain as much information from them as possible, with the fewest possible errors and trying to destroy them as little as possible'.

Nevertheless, the researcher warns that access to the information and to the samples themselves will be difficult: 'We still do not know whether we will be granted access to the samples, whether they will allow us to analyse them as we propose here with the techniques we have developed'. Meanwhile, the IBeA group will continue its work, 'because each meteorite is a world unto itself; each meteorite is totally different from all others'.

The findings of a new study examining the behaviours of alligator and caiman hatchlings have enhanced our understanding of how we can conserve, and increase, the population of endangered crocodilian species.

At adult size, there are key differences between the American alligator and the closely related spectacled caiman. However, at the time of hatching both species are tiny and might be expected to show similar behaviours in order to avoid being eaten by almost any carnivore around.

Now, researchers at the Universities of Lincoln and Vienna have conducted comparative studies between the hatchlings of these crocodilian creatures and found that the alligators are more active and likely to explore their surroundings.

The research, conducted at 'Crocodiles of the World', the only zoo in the UK specialising in keeping crocodilians, put American alligator and spectacled caiman hatchlings in unknown environments and presented them with unknown objects.

The team found that the alligators moved around much more than the caimans in all conditions and approached the unknown objects closer than the caimans, behaviour which may reflect the strength of maternal protection they receive.

Anna Wilkinson is Professor of Animal Cognition at the University of Lincoln, UK, and final author of the study. She said: "The findings of this study are exciting as they have important conservation implications.

"Several crocodilian species are endangered in the wild and one way to increase their population size is to release captive-bred juveniles into the wild. If the endangered species is a large crocodilian and at the top of the food chain, the juveniles should be allowed to grow to a larger size prior to release as they might have a lower natural predator avoidance.

"On the flip side, spectacled caimans are an invasive species in the natural range of other crocodilians, including the American alligator, and one reason for their success could be a higher survival rate of their hatchling because of their stronger tendency to avoid predators."

First author Dr Stephan Reber, said: "During our research, the movements of the animals were coded automatically using a colour tracking software developed specifically for this study.

"We used automatic coding because it allows us to catch even very small differences in behaviour. The observed behavioural tendencies of the hatchlings are very reminiscent of those of adults. Adult American alligators are rather self-assured and confident, while adult spectacled caimans are, in comparison, a bit jumpier and more easily spooked."

Hatchlings of the two species are probably equally susceptible to predators due to their similar size, but the researchers suggest that the different behaviour observed in the hatchlings is a reflection of the strength of maternal protection.

All crocodilians are guarded by a parent (usually the mother) for a considerable amount of time after hatching. The strength of that protection depends on the adult size of the parents.

Dr Reber explains: "American alligator mothers have no natural enemies in their habitat and can protect their hatchlings effectively against any predator. On the other hand, adult spectacled caimans have many predators, including cougars, jaguars and giant snakes. Therefore, American alligator hatchlings can afford to be more explorative under their mother's watchful eye, while spectacled caimans probably behave more inconspicuously to avoid attracting attention even if they are guarded."

Aging-US published "Sulforaphane promotes C. elegans longevity and healthspan via DAF- 16/DAF-2 insulin/IGF-1 signaling" which reported that the broccoli-derived isothiocyanate sulforaphane inhibits inflammation, oxidative stress and cancer, but its effect on healthspan and longevity are unclear.

The authors used the C. elegans nematode model and fed the wildtype and 9 mutant strains ±sulforaphane.

Sulforaphane increased the lifespan and promoted a health-related phenotype by increasing mobility, appetite and food intake and reducing lipofuscin accumulation.

Mechanistically, sulforaphane inhibited DAF-2-mediated insulin/insulin-like growth factor signaling and its downstream targets AGE-1, AKT-1/AKT-2. This was associated with increased nuclear translocation of the FOXO transcription factor homolog DAF-16. In turn, the target genes sod-3, mtl-1 and gst-4, known to enhance stress resistance and lifespan, were upregulated.

The results in this Aging-US research output, indicate that sulforaphane prolongs the lifespan and healthspan of C. elegans through insulin/IGF-1 signaling. They provide the basis for a nutritional sulforaphane-enriched strategy for the promotion of healthy aging and disease prevention.

Dr. Ingrid Herr from The University of Heidelberg said, "The risk of cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegeneration rises dramatically later in life."

Pak choy, which is one of the most widely consumed Brassica vegetables in Asian countries, have been reported to enhance antioxidant activity in a cell-free system and exert anti-aging effects in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans.

C. elegans is one of the most widely used models for aging research due to its short lifespan of approximately 4 weeks and highly conserved key aging-related signaling molecules .

Here, the authors asked whether sulforaphane may influence the lifespan and healthspan of C. elegans.

They found that sulforaphane significantly extends the lifespan of C. elegans and delays age-related phenotype changes.

The analysis of wild-type C. elegans and 9 mutant strains revealed that sulforaphane inhibited DAF-2 insulin/insulin receptor signaling and thereby increased DAF-16 nuclear translocation, resulting in the expression of the sod-3, mtl-1 and gst-4 target genes, which are known mediators of longevity in C. elegans.

The Herr Research Team concluded in their Aging-US Research Paper, "we are the first to report that sulforaphane prolongs the lifespan and increases the healthspan of C. elegans through the inhibition of DAF- 2/insulin/IGF-1 signaling and the activation of DAF- 16/FOXO nuclear transcription in C. elegans. Our study provides a promising hint regarding the suitability of sulforaphane as a new anti-aging drug. However, additional studies in invertebrates and mammalian model organisms are necessary to expand our findings."

Sneakers can be about style, history and even community. A new study reveals that for "Sneakerheads," sneakers are an important facet of their identities, particularly for African-American men who grew up in the 1970s and '80s coveting sneakers popularized by hip-hop stars and basketball legends.

In the journal Fashion and Textiles, researchers report new insights into the motivations, brand preferences and identity considerations of Sneakerheads. The findings were drawn from interviews with 12 men in the mid-Atlantic region of the United States, many whom are African-American, and all whom self-identified as Sneakerheads. The findings help inform marketing efforts, and help fill a void in academic literature on the topic.

"As a researcher who looks at consumer behavior and trends that apply to my industry in fashion and apparel, any sort of trend that's out there getting a lot of attention, I'm drawn to," said the study's lead author Delisia Matthews, assistant professor of textile brand management and marketing at North Carolina State University's Wilson College of Textiles. "I want to know the 'why' behind a trend. What's motivating people to go after a particular trend? What are the drivers and the brand preferences?"

In the article, researchers described the history of Sneakerhead sub-culture and defined what it means to be one: to have a strong interest in sneaker history, to seek out rare and exclusive sneaker collections and to admire, collect - and sometimes re-sell - sneakers.

Based on the interviews, three themes emerged about the motivations and preferences of Sneakerheads. The first theme, which the researchers called "Back in the Day," references the importance of history to Sneakerheads. Matthews said many Sneakerheads trace the origin of the movement to the 1970s and '80s, when sneakers were popularized by basketball icon Michael Jordan, and also by hip-hop stars who were known not just for their unique rhythms, rhymes and lyrics, but also for their style or their "swag."

"I think one of the key pivotal groups that focused on sneakers would be Run-DMC," Matthews said. "One of the shoes they made popular were the Adidas Shell Toes. It was a staple, and they even made a song about it. People were paying attention not only to what was coming out of their mouths, but also what they were wearing."

The second theme, "All About the Jumpman," references the importance of Jordan and the release of the Nike Air Jordan 1s in 1985. The logo is called the "Jumpman," and Matthews said the Nike Air Jordan 1s are, "the gateway into being a Sneakerhead."

"When Michael Jordan came out with his shoes, because he was such a pivotal figure and his performance was like no other, people wanted to be like Mike, and wanted to wear his shoes," she said. "With his notoriety, and what he stood for in the African-American community in that time, people just wanted to have those shoes to emulate what he stood for, and his performance. A lot of my participants that we talked to, when we talked about the nostalgia piece - it related to Michael Jordan."

In addition to basketball shoes, there are some other athletic shoes that are noteworthy, such as the Adidas Ultraboost running shoe, as well as celebrity collaborations. Matthews said celebrity collaborations are especially important for many younger Sneakerheads.
They last theme, which Matthews said was the most surprising, was called "For Members Only." They found a common trend among study participants to feel a sense of community and also exclusivity in regard to Sneakerhead sub-culture. And while they felt connected to other Sneakerheads who understand and respect the history and culture of sneakers, they also expressed an "us versus them" attitude toward others they called "Hypebeasts." Hypebeasts were described as people who hop on sneaker trends or are just interested in the resale value of the shoes.

The researchers also found that for many Sneakerheads, sneakers are important to their social identities, which is the concept of being self-related to the groups they belong to. Matthews said sneakers are part of how Sneakerheads connect. They share norms, practices and even a vocabulary, such as the term "drops," which references the release date for a certain shoe, and "color way," which is the particular color scheme a shoe might come in.

"The lightbulb came on for me when one participant told me, when he goes to an event, he doesn't make eye contact first," she said. "He makes shoe contact first, meaning: 'I'm looking to see what kind of shoes you have, how you're matching it. That lets me know you're my kind of people.' It's definitely a way that they connect, it's a way that they are able to look to see if those people are part of their group memberships or not."

Matthews said the findings are important because they could help brands better understand and serve their consumers. They could also help to eliminate misconceptions about Sneakerheads, she said.

"Sometimes when we see trends, people make this huge assumption that these are people who can't control their spending habits, or they're being wasteful," she said. "But when you dig into it, it's deeper than that. It has to do with identity, and nostalgia. I could be the voice of the consumer, and really advocate for them, and understand their motivations - getting past assumptions that people might make."

In future studies, Matthews plans to explore brand preferences and interests of female Sneakerheads, who are also an important market for brands to consider.

Today, neuroscience and robotics are developing hand in hand. Mikhail Lebedev, Academic Supervisor at HSE University's Centre for Bioelectric Interfaces, spoke about how studying the brain inspires the development of robots.

Robots are interesting to neuroscience and neuroscience is interesting to robots - this is what the article 'Neuroengineering challenges of fusing robotics and neuroscience' was about in the journal Science Robotics. Such collaborative development contributes to progress in both fields, bringing us closer to developing more advanced android robots and a deeper understanding of the structure of the human brain. And, to some extent, to combining biological organisms with machines, to create cybernetic organisms (cyborgs).

Neuroscience for Robots

Robots often resemble humans in their make-up. This is true for robots that are meant to mimic human actions and behaviour - neuroscience is less important to industrial machines.

The most obvious thing to use in the design of a robot is to make it look human. Robots often have two arms, two legs and a head, even if it is not necessary from an engineering point of view. This is especially important when the robot will interact with people - a machine that looks like us is easier to trust.

It is possible to ensure that not only the appearance, but also the 'brain' of the robot resembles that of a human. In developing the mechanisms for perception, information processing, and control, engineers are inspired by the structure of the human nervous system.

For example, a robot's eyes -- TV cameras that can move on different axes -- mimic the human visual system. Based on the knowledge of how human vision is structured and how the visual signal is processed, engineers design the robot's sensors according to the same principles. In this way the robot can be endowed with the human ability to see the world in three dimensions, for example.

Humans have a vestibulo-ocular reflex: the eyes apply stabilisation using vestibular information when we move, allowing us to maintain the stability of the picture we see. There may also be acceleration and orientation sensors on a robot's body. These help the robot to take body movements into account to stabilise the visual perception of the outside world and improve agility.

In addition, a robot can experience the sense of touch just like a human - a robot can have skin, it can feel touched. And then it doesn't just move randomly in space: if it touches an obstacle, it senses it and reacts to it just like a human does. It can also use this artificial tactile information to grip objects.

Robots can even simulate sensations of pain: some forms of physical contact feel normal and some cause pain, which drastically changes the robot's behaviour. It starts to avoid pain and develop new behaviour patterns, i.e. it learns - like a child who has been burned by something hot for the first time.

Not only sensory systems, but also a robot's body control can be designed analogously to that of humans. In humans, walking is controlled by so-called central rhythm generators -- specialized nerve cells designed to control autonomous motor activity. There are robots in which the same idea is used to control walking.

In addition, robots can learn from humans. A robot can perform actions in an infinite number of ways, but if it wants to mimic a human, it must observe the human and try to repeat their movements. When it makes mistakes, it compares itself with how a human performs the same action.

Robots for Neuroscience

How can neuroscience use robots? When we build a model of a biological system, we begin to better understand the principles by which it works. Therefore, developing mechanical and computer models of human nervous system movement control brings us closer to understanding neurological functions and biomechanics.

And the most promising area of using robots in modern neuroscience is in designing neurointerfaces -- systems for controlling external devices using brain signals. Neurointerfaces are necessary for the development of neuroprostheses (for example, an artificial arm for people who have lost a limb) and exoskeletons - external frames or skeletons for a human body to increase its strength or restore lost motor ability.

A robot can interact with the nervous system through a bi-directional interface: the nervous system can send a command signal to the robot, and the robot from its sensors can return sensory information to the human, causing real sensations by stimulating nerves, nerve endings in the skin, or the sensory cortex itself. Such feedback mechanisms make it possible to restore the sensation of a limb if it has been lost. They are also necessary for more precise movements of the robotic limb, since it is on the basis of sensory information received from the arms and legs that we correct our movements.

There is an interesting question that arises here: Should we control all degrees of freedom of the robot through a neural interface? In other words, how should we send specific commands to it? For example, we can 'order' the robotic arm to pick up a bottle of water, and it will perform specific operations: it will lower its arm, turn it, and unclench and clench the fingers on its hand - all on its own. This approach is called combined control - we give simple commands through a neural interface, and a special controller inside the robot selects the best strategy for implementation. Or we can create a mechanism that will not understand the 'take the bottle' command: it needs to be sent information about specific, detailed movements.

Current Studies

Neuroscientists and robotic scientists study various aspects of brain operation and robotic devices. For example, at Duke University I conducted experiments with neural interfaces on monkeys, since interfaces need to be directly connected to brain areas for them to work accurately and such experimental interventions are not always possible to be performed on humans.

In one of my studies, a monkey walked along a path and the activity of its motor cortex, which is responsible for leg movement, was read and triggered a robot to start walking. At the same time, the monkey observed this walking robot on a screen placed in front of it.

The monkey used feedback, so it corrected its movements based on what it saw on the screen. This is how the most effective neural interfaces for implementing walking are developed.

The Cybernetic Future

Such research leads us to innovative developments in the future. For example, creating an exoskeleton to restore the movements of completely paralysed people no longer seems like an unattainable fantasy - it just takes time. Progress may be held back by the lack of computer power, but development over the past ten years has also been enormous here. It is likely that we will soon see people around us using light, comfortable exoskeletons rather than wheelchairs or strollers to get around. Human cyborgs will become commonplace.

Commercial development of such systems is taking place all over the world, including in Russia. For example, the famous ExoAtlet project is developing exoskeletons for the rehabilitation of people with motor disabilities. The HSE Centre for Bioelectric Interfaces participated in the development of algorithms for these machines: Centre Head, Professor Alexey Ossadtchi, and his doctoral students developed a neurointerface that triggers the walking movements of the exoskeleton.

The rapid development of humanoid robots is also becoming a reality. It is likely that we will soon have robots walking around imitating us in many respects - moving like us and thinking like us. They will be able to do some of the work previously available only to humans.

Obviously, we will see the development of both robotics and neuroscience, and these fields will converge. This not only opens up new opportunities, but also creates new ethical questions, such as how we should treat android robots or human cyborgs.

And yet, so far, humans are better than robots in many ways. Our muscles are the most economical: eat a sandwich and you will have enough energy for the whole day. The robot will have a flat battery in half an hour. And although it may be much more powerful than a human, it is often too heavy. When it comes to elegance and energy capacity optimisation - so far, a human is still superior to a robot.

It is not far into the future when this will change - there are tens of thousands of talented scientists and engineers working towards this goal.

The economic value of insect pollinators was $34 billion in the U.S. in 2012, much higher than previously thought, according to researchers at the University of Pittsburgh and Penn State University. The team also found that areas that are economically most reliant on insect pollinators are the same areas where pollinator habitat and forage quality are poor.

"Pollinators like bees play an extremely important role in agriculture," explained senior author Vikas Khanna, Wellington C. Carl Faculty Fellow and associate professor of civil and environmental engineering at Pitt's Swanson School of Engineering. "The insects that pollinate farmers' crops underpin our ecosystem biodiversity and function, human nutrition, and even economic welfare."

But some of those busy little bees are headed for crisis--one-third of managed honey bee colonies die each winter in the U.S., and populations of many wild pollinator species are showing declines as well.

Using publicly available price and production data and existing pollination field studies, the team determined economic dependence of U.S. crops on insect pollination services at the county level, as well as areas where the habitat for wild pollinators has been reduced. One key finding is that the economic value that is dependent on insect pollination totaled $34 billion in 2012, much higher than previously thought. The team looked at 2012 because it was the most recent year for which data were available.

"The value of insects as part of our economy is apparent when you look at the well-established connection between farming and beekeeping. Farmers sometimes will buy or rent bee colonies to help pollinate their crops when there aren't enough wild bees in the area," said Khanna. "We've found that some of the areas that are economically most reliant on insect pollinators are the same areas where pollinator habitat and forage quality are poor."

The researchers found that 20 percent of U.S. counties produce 80 percent of total economic value that can be attributed to wild and managed pollinators. Their findings will inform conservation efforts and ensure sustainable production of key crops.

They also identified the key areas that produce economically and nutritionally valuable crops and are highly dependent on pollinators--areas that are at risk if wild pollinator populations continue to decline. By overlaying maps of predicted wild bee abundance, the researchers could identify areas where there was high economic dependence on pollinators but low predicted abundance of pollinators.

The research suggests a need for farmers to mitigate the shrinking bee populations by providing a more suitable habitat for the insects to thrive.

"Our study showcases the increasing importance of pollinators to supporting U.S. agricultural systems, particularly for the foods that are vital for healthy diets, like fruits, vegetables and nuts," says Christina Grozinger, Publius Vergilius Maro Professor of Entomology and director of the Center for Pollinator Research at Penn State.

"This detailed map of pollination needs and pollinator deficits helps identify regions where resources could be provided to improve pollinator habitat, as well as other regions where local land use practices are supporting both agriculture and healthy pollinator populations. Those places could serve as models for sustainable agriculture and pollinator conservation practices."

GROUND-BREAKING research from the University of Huddersfield, announced ahead of World Cancer Day 2021, proves that scalp cooling physically protects hair follicles from chemotherapy drugs. It is the world's first piece of biological evidence that explains how scalp cooling actually works and the mechanism behind its protection of the hair follicle.

The study, entitled 'Cooling-mediated protection from chemotherapy drug-induced cytotoxicity in human keratinocytes by inhibition of cellular drug uptake', has been published in the peer-reviewed journal PLOS ONE .

The data was part of an innovative hair follicle research project carried out by the dedicated Scalp Cooling Research Centre based at the University of Huddersfield. It involved the cultivation of cells isolated from human hair follicles in the lab.

The £1 million Scalp Cooling Research Centre was established at the University in 2019 with the backing of Huddersfield firm Paxman - global leaders in scalp cooling technology.

The team of experts in biology and design technology have been working together with the aim of Paxman becoming the only hair loss-preventing scalp cooling provider firmly based on biological research. It also brings the family-run business one step closer to achieving in its vision of 'zero hair loss' for cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy treatment.

Chemotherapy works by targeting all rapidly dividing cells in the body. Hair is the second fastest dividing cell, and this is the reason why many chemotherapy drugs cause alopecia. The hair follicles in the growth phase are attacked, resulting in hair loss approximately two weeks after the commencement of chemotherapy treatment.

Co-director of the centre and lead author of the journal article is Dr Nik Georgopoulos, a cancer expert at the University's Department of Biological Sciences who has collaborated with Paxman since 2011.

"Scalp cooling is currently the only treatment to combat 'chemotherapy-induced alopecia', yet little is known about its cytoprotective effect on human hair follicles," said Dr Georgopoulos.

Before now, he explained, the most common and obvious presumption to describe how scalp cooling worked was that as the scalp is cooled, the veins become constricted thereby reducing the amount of blood flow, meaning less of the chemotherapy drug enters the hair follicle.

"However, this is a really exciting discovery because our research now shows it is not as simple as that. We were able to measure how much chemotherapy drug goes into the cultured cells from hair follicles and what we have found is that cooling actually dramatically reduces the amount of chemotherapy drug being absorbed by the rapidly-diving cells of the hair follicle," he added.

This means there is now evidence for the first time, which demonstrates cooling has a direct effect on reducing the amount of drug that goes in and is not an indirect effect as thought before with the restricted blood flow.

"Our results provide evidence that attenuation of cellular drug uptake represents at least one of the mechanisms underpinning the ability of cooling to rescue human keratinocytes from chemotherapy drug-cytotoxicity, thus supporting the clinical efficacy of scalp cooling," he added.

In addition to providing evidence of how the treatment works, the Centre has also been working on developing innovative scalp cooling-related treatments and individual 3D-printed cooling caps. This has involved a collaboration of researchers from across two of the University's schools of study, the School of Applied Sciences and the School of Art, Design and Architecture.

"This latest project builds upon our previous research," continued Dr Georgopoulos.

"We had already demonstrated that if you cool at just 3 or 4 degrees lower, this can be the difference between the cells surviving or dying. We have now shown that a few degrees in temperature can also mean a more dramatic reduction in chemotherapy drug uptake by cells.

"The more evidence we can provide, the more data the designers have to facilitate the design of a better a cap. A better fit could mean more of a reduction in temperature, so more effective cooling means more survival of the follicles, leading to a better outcome."

The percentage of hair loss can be further reduced when scalp cooling is combined with the application of a topical agent. One of the Centre's tasks has been to develop the best way to deliver this agent to hair follicles on the scalp.

Richard Paxman, CEO of Paxman, added: "This latest research brings us one step closer to achieving our vision of 'zero hair loss' for cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy treatment. This is fabulous news and is a ground-breaking step in the field of scalp cooling research."

Some of the most commonly used drugs for treating hereditary breast and ovarian cancers may not work the way we thought they did, according to new University of Colorado Boulder research.

The paper, published February 2 in the journal Nature Communications, sheds new light on how they do work and could open the door to new next-generation medications that work better, the authors said.

"Despite the success of these drugs which sell in the billions of dollars per year and treat many thousands of patients, there are many unknowns about their potency and efficacy that if better understood could lead to improvements," said senior author Karolin Luger, a professor in the Department of Biochemistry. "Our paper provides a fuller picture."

The research centers around a class of drugs known as PARP-inhibitors, broadly prescribed to target cancers fueled by a mutation in the BRCA, or BReast CAncer, gene.

When functioning properly, the BRCA gene plays a key role in repairing damaged DNA inside cells. When the gene is mutated or missing, cancer risk rises.

About one in 10 of the quarter-million women diagnosed with breast cancer annually have a BRCA mutation. And BRCA-fueled cancers tend to come earlier, be more aggressive, and resist treatment.

Enter PARP inhibitors.

First unveiled clinically in 2014, the drugs target a ubiquitous family of proteins called PARPs (poly-ADP-ribose), which were discovered in the 1960s and are also instrumental in fixing broken DNA.

"PARPs are the first responders," explains first author Johannes Rudolph, a senior researcher in the Department of Biochemistry who worked with graduate student Genevieve Roberts on the study. "DNA damage happens, PARP goes in and finds it, and then it sends out a signal to other proteins to come in and help with repairs."

Because both PARP and BRCA also serve to repair DNA damage inside cancer cells, disabling the PARP first-responder in someone who doesn't have a functioning BRCA repair crew delivers what Rudolph describes as a lethal "double whammy" to cancer cells.

With this in mind, pharmaceutical companies have raced to develop more PARP inhibitors, with at least four in use today and others being explored to treat different forms of cancer.

But as it turns out, PARP is not acting alone.

Scientists recently discovered that another protein called HPF1 (histone PARylation Factor 1) is attached to the PARP protein at precisely the location where all the action happens, working closely with it in its role as first responder.

Existing drugs were developed long before HPF1 was even known to exist.

So Rudolph and Luger began to wonder: Does this newly-discovered co-protein influence how well those cancer drugs work? And if so, could drugs designed specifically to target it also work better?

Their findings suggest yes.

"It appears that existing drugs were designed to inhibit only two-thirds of the proteins at play here, because we didn't know this other third existed," says Rudolph.

For the new paper, Rudolph developed a new method to study just how tightly existing drugs bind to PARP inside cells - a measure of potency and efficacy - both in the presence and absence of HPF1.
In some cases, the drugs worked just as well whether it was there or not. But in others, it made a big difference.

For instance, the drug Olaparib bound more tightly and significantly longer to PARP when HPF1 was present than when it was not.

Put simply, this drug may, by sheer coincidence, impact the combination of the two proteins, making it work better. Meanwhile, for other drugs, there is likely room for improvement.

"This suggests that future PARP inhibitors should be aimed at taking advantage of this interaction in order to become more potent," Rudolph said.

Luger notes that such room for improvement is likely there for many drugs currently on the market, as drug candidates are often tested in isolation in test tubes to see if they work, but once inside the cell they interact with a complex network of proteins and enzymes that are not entirely understood.

"Drug development tends to move quickly, moving from in-vitro models to animal models to clinical trials without fully understanding the mechanism of action," she says. "That's a fine approach because it gets you there fast, but if you really want to improve upon these drugs you need to understand why and how they really work. That's what we tried to do with this paper."

BUFFALO, N.Y. - A popular streaming service boasts a film inventory approaching 4,000 titles. When it's time to pick a movie, are you more likely to quickly make a decision or meticulously sift through the possibilities?

Psychologists refer to those who search minimally for something to arrive at an adequate choice as "satisficers." It's the "maximizers," meantime, who search exhaustively for what might be considered as the perfect option.

Previous studies exploring both strategies after making a choice often present satisficing as a more psychologically healthy alternative and even something to aspire to. And why not? Spending about as much time choosing a movie as it takes to actually watch it seems like the agonizing reality of someone incapable of choosing from a constellation of options.

But new research from the University at Buffalo that measured cardiovascular responses in the moment of making a choice, rather than after-the-fact, suggests the opposite: It's the satisficers who feel incapable, and what appears to be a speedy certainty might instead be a defense from having to think too deeply about the choices being presented to them.

"We might assume maximizers are having a negative experience in the moment, obsessing over the perfect choice. But it appears to be the satisficers - and that might be why they're satisficing," says Thomas Saltsman, a psychology researcher in the UB College of Arts and Sciences and the paper's lead author. "We found evidence that compared to maximizers, satisficers exhibited cardiovascular threat responses consistent with evaluating themselves as less capable of managing their choice in the moment."

The findings, published in the journal Psychophysiology, break with traditional wisdom. The implications are relevant not just to everyday decision making, but speak as well to how people approach significant choices, according to Mark Seery, an associate professor of psychology at UB, and one of the paper's co-authors.

"Anyone who has had the experience of maximizing and thought about the energy and stress saved by satisficing might want to rethink that position," says Seery. "There's a time and a place for satisficing, but people who do so as a defense against the agony of choice might not be prepared to make critical decisions when they have to."

Using a sample of 128 participants, the researchers first assessed everyone's decision-making style (maximizing vs. satisficing), before presenting them with 15 online personal profiles and accompanying cards with related biographical details. Participants had three minutes to choose their "ideal" person or partner. Afterward, they reported on their decision.

Unlike previous studies, the researchers measured cardiovascular responses to better understand participants' psychological experiences during their choice, a method Saltsman and Seery have used in previous work. In particular, they focused on how people experience two key motivational dimensions called task engagement and challenge/threat.

Task engagement describes how much people care about what they're doing, as indicated by how hard and fast the heart is pumping. Challenge/threat addresses how capable and confident someone feels in moments of stress. Confidence (challenge) causes arteries to dilate, a more efficient cardiovascular state than threat, or lack of confidence, which causes the arteries to constrict.

Saltsman says the team found no evidence that maximizers and satisficers differed in terms of task engagement, or how much importance they placed on their decisions.

"What we did find is that satisficers exhibited greater threat," he says. "It presents a novel view of satisficing, one that is more defensive, uncomfortable and reactionary in nature, rather than easy, expedient and carefree."

Saltsman says satisficers may search minimally through their options not because they are less particular or simply care less about their choices than maximizers, but because they feel incapable of choosing from so many options.

"Ultimately, whether we're the Netflix viewer who swiftly settles for the lame but relatable romantic comedy, or who scrolls endlessly through its bottomless offering list of content options, it's important to occasionally press the pause button and ask why we are approaching this decision the way we are," says Saltsman.

An important bacterial disease that affects citrus trees and causes lesions, citrus canker has been effectively controlled by spraying copper. However standard management techniques involve spraying excessive amounts of copper and water without consideration for the size of the trees.

"This technique resulted in a waste of resources as well as higher costs, detrimental environmental impact, and risk for development of copper resistant strains," explained plant pathologist Franklin Behlau, who recently published an article discussing a more sustainable approach to managing citrus canker.

Behlau and his colleagues showed that it is possible to control citrus canker by spraying much less water and copper. "By adjusting both copper and water usage based on the volume of the citrus trees without affecting the quality of disease control, we have taken an important step to a more economically and environmentally sustainable citrus industry."

This research was conducted in a field trial carried out during two seasons in a commercial orchard of Pera sweet orange in Brazil. This is the first study to show that citrus canker can be managed with such a small amount of copper and water. It also identified the minimum copper deposition on the treated surface per spray necessary to protect against the disease.

"The impact for the citrus industry is huge. By using the most efficient treatments identified in our study, growers can save up 80% in the amount of copper and up to 60% in the volume of water used annually to manage citrus canker," explained Behlau. "By using less active ingredient, growers can prevent accumulation of copper in the soil and reduce the long-term effects that it may have on the development of the root system and the tree canopy."

In addition to studying citrus canker, scientists in the São Paulo state and the West-Southwest Minas Gerais state have been studying the most important diseases and pests that threaten the Brazilian citrus belt. Recent findings have been incorporated into the orchard management routine by producers, resulting in a more conscious and balanced production system.

"Our research, and the other research coming out of Brazil, can contribute significantly to a more sustainable citrus industry not only in Brazil but throughout the world. These results can help meet the global challenge of using fewer conventional pesticides in agriculture."

The inauguration of Joe Biden and Kamala Harris marks a new era for science policy in the U.S. and beyond. The new administration has inherited a global pandemic and worsening climate change, among other science-related issues. A cover story in Chemical & Engineering News (C&EN), the weekly newsmagazine of the American Chemical Society, delves into what this means for chemists and chemistry as a whole.

One of the most pressing issues facing the Biden administration is the fight against climate change. Biden campaigned on net-zero emissions of greenhouse gases by 2050 and has laid out a sweeping plan to switch the U.S. to cleaner energy sources, which experts say would create many research and development opportunities for chemists. Although the democrats control both houses of Congress and are eager to enact legislation on clean energy and climate change, their slim majorities mean that passing these bills could prove difficult. Environmental groups are putting pressure on the Environmental Protection Agency to update regulations and fight climate change, citing new research that could help protect the public from exposure to toxic substances.

The Biden administration is also prioritizing immigration reform, which will have a marked impact on the scientific community. Biden's proposed immigration bill would provide a path to citizenship for "Dreamers," as well as allow more people to come to the U.S. to work in and study the sciences. Other regulations put in place could see the rise of gene-edited animals for food and drug production, address the issue of per- and polyflouroalkyl substances (known as PFAS) in tap water and even see chlorpyrifos -- a neurotoxic pesticide -- banned on the federal level.

For decades, scientists have wrestled with rival theories to explain how interactions between species, like competition, influence biodiversity. Tracking microbial life across the planet, researchers from McGill University show that biodiversity does in fact foster further diversity in microbiomes that are initially less diverse. However, diversity rates plateau with increased competition for survival and space in more diverse microbiomes.

Published in eLife, the findings could help scientists better understand how microbiomes - communities of micro-organisms living together in particular habitats like humans, animals and plants or even soils and oceans - might recover from biodiversity loss.

"We know that biodiversity is important for ecosystem stability and functions, and many physical, chemical, and biological factors can affect biodiversity. Our study shows that ecological interactions are likely an important and general factor that promote diversity," says co-author Jesse Shapiro, an Associate Professor in the Department of Microbiology and Immunology at McGill University.

Disruptions such as more antibiotics in the food chain or pesticides in the soil, are having profound effects on the human microbiome and the wider microbial ecosystem of the planet. Reversing the negative consequences requires an appreciation of what has gone wrong, as well as how to put matters right. This demands a better understanding of the workings of the microbiome, say the researchers.

Do predicted patterns occur in nature, not just in the lab?

The question of whether "diversity begets diversity" has been debated for years in studies of natural plant and animal populations and bacteria evolved in the laboratory. While some scientists argue that existing biodiversity can limit more diversity as species vie for space and survival, others argue that it can promote species richness and foster coexistence among different species.

To test how ecological theory actually plays out in nature, the researchers employed massive crowd-sourced efforts to analyze DNA sequences of microbial communities in the largest survey of biodiversity on the planet. Researchers found that microbiome diversity promotes further diversity in communities like the human gut, where there is less diversity. Yet diversification slows as ecological niches are increasingly filled in more diverse communities like soils.

The challenge of occupying the same niche

Ecological niches represent the role a species plays in a community - including how it responds to resources and competitors in a given habitat. It's challenging for two species to occupy the same niche in the same habitat for a long time. Under ideal conditions, a species will thrive and play a unique role, without struggling for survival and space. This explains why diversity rates peak as ecological niches are increasingly filled in communities with more individuals and types of species.

"We now have a better understanding of how the theory of biodiversity applies to a much larger fraction of the genetic diversity on Earth," says Shapiro.

The study focuses on the accumulation of diversity by way of migration: new types of bacteria arriving into one environment from another. In the future, the researchers plan to extend their study to evolutionary diversification, including mutation and gene gain or loss, and how it is affected by local biodiversity.

WASHINGTON -- Researchers have developed a unique inkjet printing method for fabricating tiny biocompatible polymer microdisk lasers for biosensing applications. The approach enables production of both the laser and sensor in a room temperature, open-air environment, potentially enabling new uses of biosensing technologies for health monitoring and disease diagnostics.

"The ability to use an inexpensive and portable commercial inkjet printer to fabricate a sensor in an ambient environment could make it possible to produce biosensors on-site as needed," said research team leader Hiroaki Yoshioka from Kyushu University in Japan. "This could help make biosensing widespread even in economically disadvantaged countries and regions, where it could be used for simple biochemical tests, including those for pathogen detection."

In The Optical Society (OSA) journal Optical Materials Express, the researchers describe the ability to print microdisk lasers as small as the diameter of a human hair from a specially developed polymer called FC-V-50. They also show that the microdisks can successfully be used for biosensing with the widely used biotin-avidin system.

"Our technique can be used to print on almost any substrate," said Yoshioka. "This means that it could one day be possible to print a sensor for health monitoring directly on the surface of a person's fingernail, for example."

Eliminating the heat

Many of today's biosensors use the strong interaction between the molecules biotin and avidin to detect the presence of proteins that indicate infection or disease. This typically involves tagging a molecule of interest with biotin and then detecting when avidin binds to it.

One way to measure biotin-avidin binding is to add a biotin-labeled protein to the surface of an optical microcavity that acts like a miniature laser. When avidin binds to the biotin on the microcavity, its optical properties change enough to shift light emission in a way that can be used to detect binding.

However, the modification process needed to add biotin to the surface of microcavities is tedious and time-consuming. It also requires high-temperature heat treatments that aren't compatible with all materials, such as polymers.

"We developed an organic microdisk optical cavity laser for biosensing using FC-V-50," said Yoshioka. "This special inkjet polymer has a carboxyl functional group that is compatible with biotin, which eliminates the need for any type of heat treatment."

Printing sensors

To produce microdisk lasers, the researchers developed an ink that contained FC-V-50 and a laser dye. A piezo element embedded in an inkjet nozzle about the size of a hair allows a single, tiny ink droplet to be ejected when a voltage is applied. Once dry, this printed drop will emit light when excitation light is applied. As the light travels along the inside circumference of the disk it is amplified to generate laser light.

To turn the microdisk laser into a sensor, the researchers printed a microdisk using their inkjet method and then added reagents that allowed biotin to immobilize on its surface at room temperature. They then used light to excite the microdisk laser under a microscope and measured the reference laser emission spectrum. Next, they poured the avidin solution onto the surface of the microdisk and washed away any that didn't bind to the biotin. The laser emission was measured again to see how it deviated from the reference spectrum.

To test the method, the researchers fabricated biosensors and measured their ability to detect streptavidin protein at different concentrations. They were able to detect a maximum mode shift of 0.02 nanometers for a 0.1 parts per million concentration of streptavidin. Now that they have demonstrated the ability to print functioning biosensors, they plan to further evaluate and optimize sensor performance. Portable devices for measuring the light emission would also need to be developed for the sensors to be used at the point of care.

Coffee rust is a parasitic fungus and a big problem for coffee growers around the world. A study in the birthplace of coffee - Ethiopia - shows that another fungus seems to have the capacity to supress the rust outbreaks in this landscape.

"Coffee leaf rust is a fungal disease that is a problem for coffee growers around the world, especially on Arabica coffee, which accounts for three quarters of global coffee production and has the finest cup quality. There is a need to learn more about natural solutions instead of just applying pesticides," says Kristoffer Hylander, professor at the Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences (DEEP) at Stockholm University.

Coffee leaf rust is caused by a parasitic fungus that attacks the leaves of the coffee shrub. In some areas it has previously been known to have a potential natural enemy - a hyperparasitic fungus that grows on top of the rust. However, very little is known about its biology and to what extent it could suppress the rust. This is the first study on the interaction between the rust and its hyperparasite in Ethiopia, the birthplace of Arabica coffee. The coffee plant, the rust and its hyperparasite may have coevolved in Ethiopia for a long time.

Coffee leaf rust generally increases in abundance from the rainy to the dry season. However, it seems like this increase is reduced in places where the hyperparasite is common:

"This is an indication that the hyperparasite may have the potential to reduce outbreaks of the rust in areas where both the rust and the hyperparasite exist together," says Ayco Tack, associate professor at the Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences (DEEP) at Stockholm University.

It seems like the rust and the hyperparasite thrive in slightly different environments, with the rust adapting well in less humid places and the hyperparasite favouring slightly more humid places such as coffee farms with more shade trees.

"This could be a win-win situation. By increasing the tree cover in coffee plantations with native shade tree species that maintain their leaves during the dry season, we could perhaps benefit both biodiversity and the hyperparasite," says Kristoffer Hylander, professor at the Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences (DEEP) at Stockholm University.

The authors did not investigate whether the presence of the hyperparasite could lead to better coffee yields, via its effect on rust. The hyperparasite might reduce leaf drop associated with severe rust infection, thus reducing the expected indirect negative effect of the rust on coffee yields.

"This would be one of the next important steps in this research, since yield of coffee (or revenue) matters most for the smallholder coffee farmers. Interestingly, Ethiopia does not seem to have as big a problem with coffee leaf rust as other coffee-producing countries - and it would be interesting to find out if the hyperparasite may be an explanation for this difference. It is also important to note that the effect of coffee leaf rust in this landscape might change with the current global climate change," says Beyene Zewdie, who recently defended his thesis on the ecology of coffee diseases in Ethiopia at the Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences (DEEP) at Stockholm University.

More detailed experimental studies are needed to explore the relationships between the rust and the hyperparasite. This could enable coffee growers to utilize the hyperparasite as a biological control for the coffee leaf rust in more intensively managed plantations where the rust epidemics are highly problematic.

In the first longitudinal study to follow Georgia pre-K students through middle school, Stacey Neuharth-Pritchett, associate dean for academic programs and professor in UGA's Mary Frances Early College of Education, found that participating in pre-K programs positively predicted mathematical achievement in students through seventh grade.

"Students who participated in the study were twice as likely to meet the state standards in their mathematics achievement," said Neuharth-Pritchett. "School becomes more challenging as one progresses through the grades, and so if in middle school, students are still twice as likely to meet the state standards, it's clear that something that happened early on was influencing their trajectory."

The study found that, in fourth through seventh grades, the odds of a pre-K participant in the study meeting Georgia's state academic standards on the statewide standardized test were 1.67-2.10 times greater than the odds for a nonparticipant, providing evidence of sustained benefits of state-funded pre-K programs.

"Pre-K is a critical space where children experience success, and it sets them on a trajectory for being successful as they make the transition to kindergarten," she said. "The hope is that when children are successful early in school, they are more likely to be engaged as they progress and more likely to complete high school."

Although quality learning experiences during the early years of development have been shown to provide the skills and knowledge for later mathematics achievement, access and entry to high-quality preschool programs remain unequal across the nation.

"Our study looked at a high-needs school district that enrolled children from vulnerable situations in terms of economics and access to early learning experiences," said Neuharth-Pritchett. "A number of the children in the study had not had any other formative experiences before they went to kindergarten."

Educational experiences are seen as foundational to later school success with some studies documenting other beneficial outcomes for students who attend pre-K, including a higher chance to complete high school, less mental health concerns, less reliance on the welfare system and more. However, students from low-income families often have more limited opportunities to learn at home as well as in pre-K programs.

While some families are knowledgeable about providing their children with basic mathematical concepts and other foundational skills for a smooth home to school entry, other families might not be aware of the expectations for having mastered a number of these foundational skills before entering kindergarten.

"Equal access to pre-K education has a long history that goes all the way back to the war on poverty. Part of the thinking during the 1960s was that such early learning opportunities would provide the high-quality preschool education that could level the educational playing field between those with economic resources and those without," she said. "Our study indicated sustained benefits for children's early learning experiences that persist into the elementary and middle school years."

Some implications of the study for policymakers to consider include ensuring more equitable access to pre-K programs and hiring highly skilled teachers to promote children's learning and development. More than half of the pre-K teachers involved in the study held either a master's or specialist degree, indicating the importance and influence of high-quality, experienced instructors on children's academic success.

Because of a change in program support for the Georgia Prekindergarten Program during Gov. Nathan Deal's term, a high proportion of pre-K teachers are now very early in their teaching careers.

Along with Jisu Han, an assistant professor at Kyung Hee University and co-author of the study, Neuharth-Pritchett plans to continue following the study's participants as they progress through high school.

"The state of Georgia invests substantial resources into this program, so it's good that these outcomes can be cited for its efficacy," said Neuharth-Pritchett. "The data from this study gives a much more longitudinal view of success and suggests these programs contribute to children's education and success. Our results ultimately contribute to evidence supporting early learning and factors influencing long-term academic success for Georgia's children."